Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

For an overview of a variety of kinship restrictions on Melanesian homosexual relations, see Schwimmer, E. (1984) “Male Couples in New Guinea,” pp. 276-77, in G. H. Herdt, ed., Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 248—91 (Berkeley: University of California Press); Murray, S. O. (1992) “Age-Stratified Homosexuality: Introduction,” pp. 10-12, in Murray, Oceanic Homosexualities, pp. 293-327. For more on New Guinean homosexualities, see chapter 6.

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Leavitt, “Sociobiological Explanations,” pp. 974-75; Livingstone, “Cultural Causes,” p. 318. For arguments that in animals some forms of inbreeding (such as between cousins) may actually have beneficial genetic and social effects and are preferred in some species (e.g., Vervet monkeys, Japanese quail), see Moore and Ali 1984 (Bonnet Macaque); Bateson, P. (1982) “Preferences for Cousins in Japanese Quail,” Nature 295:236—37; Shields, W. M. (1982) Philopatry, Inbreeding, and the Evolution of Sex (Albany: State University of New York Press); Cheney, D. M., and R. M. Seyfarth (1982) “Recognition of Individuals Within and Between Groups of Free-Ranging Vervet Monkeys,” American Zoologist 22:519-30.

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Japanese Macaque (Wolfe 1979; Chapais and Mignault 1991; Vasey 1996:543; Chapais et al. 1997); Hanuman Langur (Srivastava et al. 1991:509 [table II]; Sommer and Rajpurohit 1989:304, 310); Bonobo (Hashimoto et al. 1996:315—16). Bonobo mother-daughter homosexual relations occasionally occur (Thompson-Handler et al. 1984:355).

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Savanna Baboon (Smuts and Watanabe 1990:167-70).

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Berndt, R., and C. Berndt (1945) “A Preliminary Report of Field Work in the Ooldea Region, Western South Australia,” pp. 245, 260-66, Oceania 15:239-75; Meggitt, M. J. (1962) Desert People: A Study of the Walbiri Aborigines of Central Australia, pp. 262-63. (Sydney: Angus and Robertson); Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1977) “Patterns of Greeting in New Guinea,” pp. 221,226, in S.A. Wurm, ed., New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Vol. 3: Language, Culture, Society, and the Modern World, pp. 209—47, Pacific Linguistics Series C, no. 40 (Canberra: Australian National University Press). For more on ritualized homosexuality among the Bedamini and other New Guinean peoples, see chapter 6.

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Interestingly, homosexual activity in another group of highly intelligent creatures—whales and dolphins—also has many of the hallmarks of cultural activity identified here. Same-sex activity varies considerably between individuals, populations, and time periods in a number of cetaceans. For example, sexual interactions between male Killer Whales appear to differ in frequency and occurrence depending on the geographic area (Rose 1992:7), while male pairs of Bottlenose Dolphins exhibit different characteristics in various populations (see chapter 5). In addition, “incest taboos” appear to be operative in most male Killer Whale homosexual interactions (Rose 1992:112), sexual activity in Bottlenose Dolphins sometimes has a ritualistic or “greeting” component (Ostman 1991:313), while Bottlenose Dolphins of both sexes have also been observed “masturbating” or stimulating their genitals using inanimate objects (Caldwell and Caldwell 1972:430).

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Hamer, D., and P. Copeland (1994) The Science of Desire: The Search for the Gay Gene and the Biology of Behavior, p. 213 (New York: Simon and Schuster).

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Ward, J. (1987) “The Nature of Heterosexuality,” in G. E. Hanscombe and M. Humphries, eds., Heterosexuality, pp. 145-69. (London: GMP Publishers).

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Weinrich, J. D. (1982) “Is Homosexuality Biologically Natural?” in W. Paul, J. D. Weinrich, J. C. Gonsiorek, and M. E. Hotvedt, eds., Homosexuality: Social, Psychological, and Biological Issues, pp. 197-208 (Beverly Hills, Calif: SAGE Publications). For an early discussion of animal homosexuality in relation to the question of “naturalness,” see Gide, A. (1911/1950) Corydon (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Co.).

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