Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

Pied Kingfisher (Reyer et al. 1986:216); Orang-utan (Kingsley 1982:227); Spotted Hyena (Frank 1996; Frank et al. 1985, 1995 ; Glickman et al. 1993); Western Gull (Wingfield et al. 1982). See also Mloszewski (1983:186), who indicates that masculinized female African Buffalo—i.e., those with “pronounced male secondary sexual characteristics,” likely due in part to a differing hormonal profile—do not participate in homosexual activity any more often than do nontransgendered females (and perhaps do so even less often). For other species in which a subset of individuals have different hormone profiles (not associated with homosexual activity), see Solomon, N. G., and J. A. French, eds. (1997) Cooperative Breeding in Mammals, pp. 241, 304–5, 370 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

114

Takhi (Boyd 1986:660). Although detailed hormonal studies of Takhi during pregnancy have been conducted, they did not involve sampling of androgens or other male hormones; see Monfort et al. 1994; Monfort, S. L., N. P. Arthur, and D. E. Wildt (1991) “Monitoring Ovarian Function and Pregnancy by Evaluating Excretion of Urinary Oestrogen Conjugates in Semi-Free-Ranging Przewalski’s Horses (Equus przewalskii),” Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 91:155–64.

115

Domestic Horses (McDonnell, S. [1986] “Reproductive Behavior of the Stallion,” especially p. 550, in S. L. Crowell-Davis and K. A. Houpt, eds., Behavior, pp. 535–55. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice 2[3] [Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders]).

116

Recent work on the sexual orientation of Domestic Sheep has begun to move away from this paradigm, to the extent that hormonal profiles are assessed for males who prefer mounting other males, rather than simply for the (“gender-atypical”) males who are themselves mounted by other males. In this case, there do appear to be some differences between homosexual and heterosexual sheep (cf. Adler, T. [1996] “Animals’ Fancies: Why Members of Some Species Prefer Their Own Sex,” Science News 151:8–9; Resko et al. 1996; Perkins et al. 1992, 1995). However, rarely (if ever) is the two-way influence of biology and behavior discussed in these studies, i.e., biology (hormones, brain structure) is invariably assumed to determine sexual behavior, when in fact it is also possible for behavior (and other social factors) to alter or affect an animal’s hormonal profile or brain structure. Moreover, the search for hormonal differences is little more than a continuation of the need to find a physiological “cause” for homosexuality. Within an overall framework in which any nonreproductive behavior is still seen as anomalous, this is only a few steps removed from the overt pathologizing of homosexuality so characteristic of earlier studies.

117

Savanna Baboon (Marais 1922/1969:205); Baker, J.R. (1929) Man and Animals in the New Hebrides, pp. 22, 117 (London: George Routledge and Sons).

118

Bighorn Sheep (Berger 1985:334–35); White-tailed Deer (Thomas et al. 1964:236; see also Taylor et al. 1964; Thomas et al. 1965, 1970); Savanna Baboon (Marais 1922/1969; Bielert 1984b, 1985).

119

For early descriptions of intersexual Savanna Baboons, see Marais 1922/1969, 1926. For a summary of early observations of velvet-horns and other gender-mixing Deer, see Thomas et al. 1970:3 (White-tailed Deer) and Anderson 1981:94–95 (Mule Deer).

120

Northern Elephant Seal (Le Boeuf 1974:173); Red Deer (Darling 1937:170); Black-headed Gull (van Rhijn 1985:87, 100); Common Garter Snake (Mason and Crews 1985:59).

Chapter 5. Not for Breeding Only: Reproduction on the Periphery of Life

1

Hutchinson, G. E. (1959) “A Speculative Consideration of Certain Possible Forms of Sexual Selection in Man,” American Naturalist 93:81–91.

2

According to sociobiologist James Weinrich, biological “mistakes” such as genetically transmitted diseases occur at very low rates, roughly 1 in 10,000 or less (Weinrich, J. D. [1987] Sexual Landscapes, p. 334 [New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons]). Moreover, such genetic “defects,” rather than being uniformly detrimental, sometimes confer unique abilities on their carriers. People with the genetic “disorder” of William’s syndrome, for example—which occurs in about 1 in 20,000 people—often display extraordinary musical abilities, remarkable verbal skills, and exceptionally empathetic personalities, although they typically also have low IQs and some medical complications (Lenhoff, H. M., P. P. Wang, F. Greenberg, and U. Bellugi [1997] “William’s Syndrome and the Brain,” Scientific American 277[6]:68—73).

3