Good Calories, Bad Calories

^*86Obesity and Leanness was the first serious book on obesity published after 1900, when von Noorden published Die Fettsucht. In the years since, there have been only half a dozen similar attempts (out of the innumerable professional texts and proceedings now available) to present a comprehensive and balanced analysis of the evidence, and only three come close to Obesity and Leanness in critical analysis—the chapters on obesity and undernutrition in the 1933 English translation of Eric Grafe’s Metabolic Diseases and Their Treatment, Hilde Bruch’s Importance of Overweight, and, a distant fourth, John Garrow’s Energy Balance and Obesity in Man.

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^*87 A hormone also secreted by the pancreas that tends to counteract the effects of insulin.

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^*88 This phenomenon led to the notion of low-protein diets for weight loss. Regrettably, the ability to burn off excess calories when consuming a protein-deficient diet appears to be specific to young animals, and maybe even young pigs. When researchers tried to replicate this result in other animals—rats, sheep, cattle, or even older pigs—they noted that the animals eating the lower-protein diet got considerably fatter. They had more fat and less muscle, even if they weighed the same as the control animals.

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^*89 Although, as we discussed in Chapter 16, the total energy expenditure of obese individuals is likely to be greater, because they have, simply put, more pounds to expend energy and generate heat.

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^*90“The mean diet for Japanese people,” Nishizawa et al. reported, citing a 1972 survey by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, “consists of 359 g of carbohydrate, 50.1 g of fat, 82.9 g of protein and a total of 2,279 calories.”

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^*91“Obesity itself,” as the National Academy of Sciences noted in 1989, “has not been found to be associated with dietary fat in either inter-or intra-population studies.”

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^*92 The Duke University pediatrician James Sidbury, Jr., who would go on to become director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, made the same observation about the obese children he treated in the early 1970s: “A pattern of constant nibbling was consistently found. Most common snack foods are predominantly carbohydrate: crackers, potato chips, french fries, cookies, soft drinks, and the like.”

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^†93 Evans’s first test diets “called for no carbohydrate whatever” only later did he settle on twenty grams of carbohydrates to address nitrogen balance.

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^*94“Wheat contains all of the essential amino acids,” explained the Columbia University nutritional anthropologist Marvin Harris, “but to get enough of the ones that are in scarce supply a man weighing 176 pounds (80 kilos) would have to stuff himself with 3.3 pounds (1.5 kilos) of whole wheat bread a day. To reach the same safe level of protein, he would need only .75 pounds (340 grams) of meat.”

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^*95 These included Graham Lusk and Eugene Du Bois from Cornell and the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology; Russell Pearl and William McCallum from Johns Hopkins; the Harvard anthropologist Earnest Hooton; and Clark Wissler of the American Museum of Natural History.

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^*96 There are only four experiments in the medical literature, not including Stefansson and Anderson’s, in which the goal was to induce scurvy in human subjects—in one, four, twenty, and four subjects respectively. In each case, the goal was accomplished and the diets were carbohydrate-and/or sugar-rich.

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^*97 According to Lewis Finn, then president of the Delaware Academy of Medicine, Gehrmann’s department at DuPont was “one of the most outstanding industrial medical departments in the country.”

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^*98 One DuPont executive, discussed by Pennington in a later report, lost sixty-two pounds on the diet and kept it off for more than two years, while averaging thirty-three hundred calories of meat a day. If he ate any carbohydrates, “even an apple,” Pennington wrote, his weight would climb upward.

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^*99 These critiques were written by anonymous “competent authorities.” In this case, the likely authority was Philip White, formerly at Harvard, now beginning his job as secretary of the AMA’s Council on Foods and Nutrition and a columnist for JAMA. He would write a similar dismissal of high-fat, carbohydrate-restricted diets under his own name in 1962, and then edit another anonymous version in 1973.

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