Invisible Rulers

69 Gordon Pennycook and David G. Rand, “Fighting Misinformation on Social Media Using Crowdsourced Judgements of News Source Quality,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 7 (January 28, 2019): 2521–2526, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1806781116.

70 Eric Jaffe, “The ‘Contagion’ of Social Networks,” Los Angeles Times, September 13, 2010, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-sep-13-la-he-social-networks-health-20100913-story.html.

71 Eli Pariser and Talia Stroud’s nonprofit organization New_ Public maintains a Substack with research into how norms shape digital spaces. See, for example, “Understanding How Norms Shape Digital Spaces,” New_ Public, Substack, December 10, 2023, https://newpublic.substack.com/p/understanding-how-norms-shape-digital.

72 Philip Bump, “From the Election to the Riot, Nearly a Third of Facebook’s Top Link Posts Were from Right-Wing Media,” Washington Post, January 12, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/01/12/election-riot-nearly-third-facebooks-top-link-posts-were-right-wing-media.

73 Renée DiResta, “Free Speech Is Not the Same as Free Reach,” Wired, August 30, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/free-speech-is-not-the-same-as-free-reach.

74 “Freedom of Speech, Not Reach: An Update on Our Enforcement Philosophy,” Twitter Blog, April 17, 2023, https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/product/2023/freedom-of-speech-not-reach-an-update-on-our-enforcement-philosophy.

75 Di Zhao, Pouriya, and Auro, “Twitter: The Algorithm,” GitHub repository, 2023, https://github.com/twitter/the-algorithm.

76 Ragul Bharvaga et al., “Gobo: A System for Exploring User Control of Invisible Algorithms in Social Media,” CSCW (2019): 151–155, https://doi.org/10.1145/3311957.3359452.

77 Francis Fukuyama et al., “Report of the Working Group on Platform Scale,” Stanford Internet Observatory Cyber Policy Center, November 17, 2020, https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/publication/report-working-group-platform-scale.

78 Ethan Zuckerman and Chand Rajendra-Nicolucci, “From Community Governance to Customer Service and Back Again: Re-examining Pre-web Models of Online Governance to Address Platforms’ Crisis of Legitimacy,” Social Media and Society 9, no. 3 (July-September 2023): 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231196864.

79 Tobias Rose-Stockwell, Outrage Machine: How Tech Amplifies Discontent, Disrupts Democracy—and What We Can Do About It (London: Piatkus, 2023), also summarized in brief essay form in Tobias Rose-Stockwell, “Facebook’s Problems Can Be Solved with Design,” Quartz, April 30, 2018, https://qz.com/1264547/facebooks-problems-can-be-solved-with-design.

80 James Vincent, “Twitter Is Bringing Its ‘Read Before You Retweet’ Prompt to All Users,” The Verge, September 25, 2020, https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/25/21455635/twitter-read-before-you-tweet-article-prompt-rolling-out-globally-soon.

81 Avie Schneider and Scott Horsley, “How Stock Market Circuit Breakers Work,” NPR, March 9, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/03/09/813682567/how-stock-market-circuit-breakers-work.

82 Renée DiResta and Tobias Rose-Stockwell, “How to Stop Misinformation Before It Gets Shared,” Wired, March 26, 2021, https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-stop-misinformation-before-it-gets-shared.

83 Renée DiResta, “Elon Musk Is Fighting for Attention, Not Free Speech,” The Atlantic, April 14, 2022, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/04/elon-musk-buy-twitter-free-speech/629571.

84 For more suggestions on friction, see Ellen P. Goodman and Karen Kornbluh, “Social Media Platforms Need to Flatten the Curve of Dangerous Misinformation,” Slate, August 21, 2020, https://slate.com/technology/2020/08/facebook-twitter-youtube-misinformation-virality-speed-bump.html; Ellen P. Goodman, “Digital Information Fidelity and Friction,” Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, February 26, 2020, https://knightcolumbia.org /content/digital-fidelity-and-friction; Brett M. Frischmann and Susan Benesch, “Friction-in-Design Regulation as 21st Century Time, Place, and Manner Restriction,” Yale Journal of Law and Technology 25 (August 2023): 377–447, https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4178647. Also see the library of design interventions broached by user experience (UX) researchers that can be found at the Integrity Institute’s website at https://integrityinstitute.org.

85 St. Aubin and Liedke, “Most Americans Favor.”

86 For an in-depth examination of these volunteer moderators as a civic labor force in online governance, see J. Nathan Matias, “The Civic Labor of Volunteer Moderators Online,” Social Media + Society, April 4, 2019, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2056305119836778.

87 Spandana Singh, “Everything in Moderation: An Analysis of How Internet Platforms Are Using Artificial Intelligence to Moderate User-Generated Content,” New American, July 22, 2019, https://www.newamerica.org/oti/reports/everything-moderation-analysis-how-internet-platforms-are-using-artificial-intelligence-moderate-user-generated-content.