The Epigenetics Revolution

Nobody really understood how the cytoplasm of eggs could convert adult nuclei into ones like zygotes. There was pretty much an assumption that whatever it was must be incredibly complicated and difficult to unravel. Often in science really big questions have smaller, more manageable questions inside them. So a number of labs tackled a conceptually simpler, but technically still hugely challenging issue.

Endless potential

Remember that ball at the top of Waddington’s landscape. In cellular terms it’s the zygote and it’s referred to as totipotent, that is, it has the potential to form every cell in the body, including the placenta. Of course, zygotes by definition are rather limited in number and most scientists working in very early development use cells from a bit later, the famous embryonic stem (ES) cells. These are created as a result of normal developmental pathways. The zygote divides a few times to create a bundle of cells called the blastocyst. Although the blastocyst typically has less than 150 cells it’s already an early embryo with two distinct compartments. There’s an outer layer called the trophectoderm, which will eventually form the placenta and other extra-embryonic tissues, and an inner cell mass (ICM).

Figure 2.1 shows what the blastocyst looks like. The drawing is in two dimensions but in reality the blastocyst is a three-dimensional structure, so the actual shape is that of a tennis ball that’s had a golf ball glued inside it.

^{Figure 2.1 A diagram of the mammalian blastocyst. The cells of the trophectoderm will give rise to the placenta. During normal development, the cells of the Inner Cell Mass (ICM) will give rise to the tissues of the embryo. Under laboratory conditions, the cells of the ICM can be grown in culture as pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cells.}

The cells of the ICM can be grown in the lab in culture dishes. They’re fiddly to maintain and require specialised culture conditions and careful handling, but do it right and they reward us by dividing a limitless number of times and staying the same as the parent cell. These are the ES cells and as their full name suggests, they can form every cell of the embryo and ultimately of the mature animal. They aren’t totipotent – they can’t make placenta – so they are called pluripotent because they make pretty much anything else.

These ES cells have been invaluable for understanding what’s important for keeping cells in a pluripotent state. Over the years a number of leading scientists including Azim Surani in Cambridge, Austin Smith in Edinburgh, Rudolf Jaenisch in Boston and Shinya Yamanaka in Kyoto have devoted huge amounts of time to identifying the genes and proteins expressed (switched on) in ES cells. They particularly tried to identify genes that keep the ES cells in a pluripotent state. These genes are extraordinarily important because ES cells seem to be very prone to turn into other cell types in culture if you don’t keep the conditions just right. Just a small change in culture conditions, for example, and a culture dish full of one-time ES cells can differentiate into cardiomyocytes and do what heart cells do best: they beat along in time with one another. A slightly different change in conditions – altering the delicate balance of chemicals in the culture fluid, for example, can divert the ES cells away from the cardiac route and start the development of cells that give rise to the neurons in our brains.

Scientists working on ES cells identified a whole slew of genes that were important for keeping the cells pluripotent. The functions of the various genes they identified weren’t necessarily identical. Some were important for self-renewal, i.e. one ES dividing to form two ES cells, whereas others were required to stop the cells from differentiating[9].