Titans of History

Talat Pasha was reported to have told an official at the German embassy in 1915 that the Ottoman government was “taking advantage of the war in order to thoroughly liquidate its internal enemies, the indigenous Christians … without being disturbed by foreign intervention.” Between 1 and 1.5 million Armenians, out of a population of just under 2.5 million, perished in this period, whether this was an officially ordered genocide or a disorderly series of massacres.

Meanwhile in the Middle East, Jemal, facing an Arab revolt under British patronage, was launching a reign of terror in Damascus, Beirut and Jerusalem against Arab nationalists. The Ottomans achieved some surprising successes, destroying a British army at Kut in Iraq and routing the British forces in the Dardanelles. Nonetheless, Jemal failed to take Egypt and the British offensive was soon advancing on Jerusalem as the Russians pushed across the Caucasus.

Talat then focused more of his attention on the deteriorating military position, and in 1917 was appointed grand vizier of the Sublime Porte (Ottoman prime minister). But he failed to stem the tide of military defeats, and resigned in October 1918, fleeing Turkey aboard a German submarine. The other two of the Three Pashas fled. In 1919, the world’s first war crimes trials were held under Allied auspices. The CUP leadership was found guilty and Talat, as the mastermind of the massacres, was sentenced to death. The Turks appealed to Germany for his extradition, but before this could happen Talat was murdered in Berlin in March 1921. His assassin was a survivor of the massacres who had seen his sisters raped and murdered by Turkish troops. Jemal was assassinated too, while Enver died in battle charging the Bolsheviks in central Asia.

The persecution of the Armenians that Talat initiated provided the inspiration that others would draw on later in the century. Thus, as he contemplated his slaughter of the Jews, Hitler remarked, “Who, after all, speaks today of the annihilation of the Armenians?” Even to this day, to mention the Armenian massacres in Turkey is interpreted as the crime of “insulting Turkishness,” and is punishable by imprisonment.

ATATÜRK

1881–1938

We shall attempt to raise our national culture above the level of contemporary civilization. Therefore, we think and shall continue to think not according to the lethargic mentality of past centuries, but according to the concepts of speed and action of our century.

Atatürk, speaking at the 10th anniversary of the Turkish Republic (October 29, 1933)

Atatürk—the name adopted in 1934 by Mustafa Kemal—means Father of the Turks. He was a leader of immense vision, who created a new Islamic secularism, led Turkey out of the ruins of the moribund Ottoman empire and transformed it into a modern, Westernized republic. He became a military hero in the First World War and subsequently led the Turks to victory over an invading Greek army, sometimes with ruthlessness. He went on to become Turkey’s first president, leading the country until his death in 1938. He was by far the greatest of the strongmen of the inter-war period. In our own time of challenge from Islamist fanaticism, Atatürk’s vision has never been more important or relevant, yet his methods were harsh and the massacre of Smyrna was at least partly his responsibility.

Atatürk was born in what is now the Greek city of Thessaloniki. He was an academically gifted child and attended military schools from the age of twelve. Once he had been commissioned as an army officer, he joined the group known as the Young Turks, who were critical of the Ottoman regime and eager for reform and progress. Atatürk was one of those leaders who was as gifted a politician as he was a military commander. During the First World War, he was the victor of Gallipoli, defeating the Allied attack there. He also served in the Caucasus, Sinai and Palestine. He demonstrated a talent for winning the ultimate loyalty of his troops. “I don’t order you to attack,” he told them, “I order you to die.”