Жизнь и смерть в Средние века. Очерки демографической истории Франции

The interpretation of principal demographic features of each of the periods of French demographic history studied here, reveals both their specific character and succession. Treating the various forms of expression of this succession, the author noted the existence, through nearly the whole millennium under study, of similar trends towards a greater toughening of marriage rules, a constant pushing up of the age at first marriage, intensification of vital behaviour, a constant improvement in puericulture, decrease in death-rate, etc. These similar trends of the evolution of demographic behaviour were deep-rooted. It would be hard not to see the commensurability of the evolution of demographic behaviour and the general tendency of the evolution of medieval society as a whole, which, as is well known, was characterized by a gradual, though not uninterrupted, growth.

It has already been mentioned above, that the system of demographic concepts was nevertheless an independent element of reality. What in the system itself made it relatively stable? What made the succession possible? Here we should keep in mind, first of all, that in human lives there could hardly exist stereotypes more permanently reproduced than those which determined nuptial, procreative or vital conduct. They all constituted everyday practice, in the true sense of the word. Everyday practice naturally made traditional and conventional stereotypes especially stable, hardly changeable. Sexual moralities are not accidentally considered to be one of the most conservative and stable components of culture. Paradoxically, the very fact that the rules of this moral code were everywhere and everyday performed, made individual deviations more and more frequent. Such deviations could become more frequent also because demographic behaviour constitutes the most intimate sphere of human lives, where any social control would be practically impossible. Most often, the deviations occurred within the deep-rooted trends, and were not so much of a qualitative character, as a quantitative one: a further pushing up of the age at first marriage; a stricter fulfillment of marriage rules; a greater intensification of vital behaviour etc. The «freedom gap» some individuals retained regarding most conventional stereotypes of behaviour, was used most often in that way. It was very seldom that it could be used to create principally new forms of conduct, and yet it was not impossible. The practice of voluntary regulation of fertility, scarce at its initial stage, but spreading more and more widely into daily routine, is only one example illustrating the phenomenon.

As to the demographic growth proper, which in medieval France was a stable feature of demographic development, it was preconditioned not only by clichés of behaviour. It was also stimulated by the expansion of the territory of France, intensified cultivation of lands, social and economic upsurge, the state’s political consolidation, etc. Yet the consequences of the growth were not always monosemantic. As the internal and external expansion of the French feudalism was completed, the further demographic growth presented a more and more acute problem. The country faced the menace of overpopulation.

For many decades Soviet historiography treated the problem of overpopulation in a simplified way: any overpopulation was considered «relative», caused by temporary difficulties, which nevertheless could be overcome only through changes in the «economic basis of society». The history of France shows that the excess of human resources had existed there very early, at least since the end of the thirteenth century, and kept through different variants of the «economic basis» (periods of calamity excluded). The traditional view that the Middle Ages constantly suffered from underpopulation is in many respects mythical. Even in those early times, people were forced to resist unbalanced demographic growth, and found means to limit it. Underestimating the role of socio-cultural means of regulation of historical process, students of history had for a long time overlooked their role in demographic regulation as well.

To trace demographic processes in their relation to demographic concepts and demographic behaviour is one of the characteristic undertakings of new demographic history. Besides revealing quantitative parameters of various demographic phenomena, it plunges into research of motives of human actions in the demographic sphere, and the sources of those motives. This does not only expand the territory of the demographic history of old, it also changes its very character. Converging with historio-cultural anthropology, the new demographic history contributes greatly to the creation of historical synthesis. This book is an attempt to help the new demographic history to mature.

Список сокращений

ВИ — «Вопросы истории»

ВФ — «Вопросы философии»

СЭ — «Советская этнография»

ФЕ — «Французский ежегодник»