Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

Scott, P. E. (1994) “Lucifer Hummingbird (Calothorax lucifer),” in A. Poole and F. Gill, eds., The Birds of North America: Life Histories for the 21st Century, no. 134, p. 9. (Philadelphia: Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D.C.: American Ornithologists’ Union); Dejong, M. J. (1996) “Northern Rough-winged Swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis),” in Poole and Gill, The Birds of North America, no. 234, p. 9; Kricher, J. C. (1995) “Black-and-white Warbler (Pheucticus melanocephalus),” in Poole and Gill, The Birds of North America, no. 158, p. 9; O‘Brien, R. M. (1990) “Red-tailed Tropicbird (Phaethon rubricauda)”, in S. Marchant and P. J. Higgins, eds., Handbook of Australian, New Zealand, and Antarctic Birds, vol. 1, part B, p. 940 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press); Johnsgard, P. A. (1983) Cranes of the World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press); Powers, D. R. (1996) “Magnificent Hummingbird (Eugenes fulgens),” in Poole and Gill, The Birds of North America, no. 221, p. 10; Hill, G. E. (1994) “Black-headed Grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus),” in Poole and Gill, The Birds of North America, no. 143, p. 8; Victoria’s Riflebird (Frith and Cooper 1996:103; Gilliard 1969:13); Cheetah (Caro 1994:42); Lepson, J. K., and L. A. Freed (1995) “Variation in Male Plumage and Behavior of the Hawaii Akepa,” Auk 112:402-14; Spotted Hyena (Frank 1996:117); Agile Wallaby (Stirrat and Fuller 1997:75); Birds of Paradise (Davis and Beehler 1994:522); Nelson, S. K., and S. G. Sealy (1995) “Biology of the Marbled Murrelet: Inland and at Sea (Symposium Introduction),” Northwestern Naturalist 76:1—3; Orang-utan (Schürmann 1982; Schürmann and van Hoof 1986; Maple 1980); Rowe, S., and R. Empson (1996) “Observations on the Breeding Behavior of the Tanga’eo or Mangaia Kingfisher (Halcyon tuta rufi-collaris),” Notornis 43:43-48; Common Chimpanzee (Gagneux et al. 1997; Wrangham 1997); Harbor Seal (Perry and Amos 1998).

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Emu (Coddington and Cockburn 1995; Heinroth 1924); Black-rumped Flameback (Neelakantan 1962); Nilgiri Langur (Poirier 1970a,b); Harbor Seal (Johnson 1976:45); Northern Quoll (Dempster 1995); Gray-capped Social Weaver (Collias and Collias 1980); Walrus (Miller 1975; Fay et al. 1984); Acorn Woodpecker (Koenig and Stacey 1990:427); Australian Shelduck (Riggert 1977:20); Killer Whale (Jacobsen 1990:78; Rose 1992:1—2). See also Lutz and Voight 1994 for the first documentation of copulatory behavior—between two males—in two previously unknown species of deep-sea octopuses (a group in which heterosexual mating has yet to be observed in any species). Other animals in which same-sex activity has been documented and in which heterosexual activity has rarely been observed include Musk-oxen (Smith 1976:62), Red-necked Wallabies (Johnson 1989a:275), Vicunas (Koford 1957:182-84), Musk Ducks (Lowe 1966:285), and Ruffed Grouse (Johnsgard 1983:295). See chapter 4 for further discussion of the often insurmountable difficulties in attempting to observe and study sexual activity under field conditions.

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Ring-billed Gull (Conover and Aylor 1985). See chapter 4 for discussion of some of the pitfalls of equating homosexual pairings with supernormal clutches.

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Dragonflies (Dunkle 1991).

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Pukeko (Craig 1980); Pronghorn (Kitchen 1974). The behavior was probably classified as rare in Pronghorn because the amount of same-sex activity was not being compared to the amount of opposite-sex activity, but rather to the total amount of “dominance” behavior (which it was classified as), consisting primarily of nonsexual activities. For further discussion and critique of homosexuality interpreted as a “dominance” activity, see chapter 3.

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Killer Whale (Rose 1992:116); Regent Bowerbird (Lenz 1994:266 [table 2]); White-handed Gibbon (Edwards and Todd 1991:233 [table 1]); Crab-eating Macaque (Thompson 1969:465).

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Giraffe (Pratt and Anderson 1985, 1982, 1979). In a study of another population of Giraffes, only three mounts between males were recorded, but only 400 hours of observation were involved (Dagg and Foster 1976:124).

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Mountain Sheep (Geist 1968:210-11 [tables 4, 6]); 1971:152 [table 30]).

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