Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

For a recent example concerning a little-known species, see Dyrcz, A. (1994) “Breeding Biology and Behavior of the Willie Wagtail Rhipidura leucophrys in the Mdang Region, Papua New Guinea,” Emu 94:17—26.

31

Emu (Heinroth 1924, 1927); Regent Bowerbird (Gilliard 1969:341); Dugong (Jones 1967; Nair et al. 1975:14). The visual resemblance between younger male and adult female Superb Lyrebirds has also resulted in some misidentifications and revised interpretations of this species’ behavior in the wild. Although Smith (1968:88—89, 1988:30—32, 75—78) and Lill (1979a:496) state clearly (and offer photographic documentation) that adult males court (and even mount) younger males, the identification of some individuals has not been so straightforward. One bird photographed as it was being courted by an adult male (including full courtship displays) was first identified as “possibly” a male (Smith 1968:60), then as a female (Smith 1988:30). However, after a careful review of the plumage characteristics of adult females and younger males, L. H. Smith has confirmed (personal communication) that the younger bird in this case was indeed a male and in fact was most likely the adult male’s own son. Unfortunately, the earlier published reports in which the sex of the younger bird was unclear may have led Reilly (1988:32) to state erroneously that males never perform full courtship displays toward other males. For additional photographs of males performing full displays to other males, see Smith (1988:77) and p. 13 (this book).

32

King Penguin (Gillespie 1932:96-120).

33

Snow Goose (Quinn et al. 1989); Ring-billed Gull (Kovacs and Ryder 1981); Red-backed Shrike (Pounds 1972); Blue Tit (Blakey 1996); Guianan Cock-of-the-Rock (Trail and Koutnik 1986); Stumptail Macaque (Chevalier-Skolnikoff 1976:522 [table III]); Jackdaw (Röell 1979:126-27); Cheetah (Eaton and Craig 1973:248, 250); Bonobo (Parish 1996:65, 86; de Waal 1997:112—15). Similarly, in citing Hartman’s (1971) original descriptions of homosexuality in West Indian Manatees, Ronald et al. (1978:37) focus on examples of same-sex activity that occur in conjunction with heterosexual behaviors and downplay those that are independent of opposite-sex encounters (even though such independent encounters are equally, if not more, prevalent). On a related point, genes that are thought to control homosexual activity in Fruit Flies have been given names by scientists that refer solely to their (negative) effect on heterosexuality and breeding. One gene has been labeled dissatisfaction (alluding to the fact that carriers of this gene, in addition to being interested in homosexual activity, typically refuse or are “dissatisfied” with heterosexual advances), while another has been called fruitless (alluding to the fact that carriers, in addition to courting individuals of both sexes, are infertile) (Finley et al. 1997:917).

34

Savanna (Olive) Baboon (Owens 1976:254); Right Whale (Clark 1983:169); Moose (Van Ballenberghe and Miquelle 1993:1688); Cattle Egret (Fujioka and Yamagishi 1981:136).

35

Squirrel Monkey (Talmage-Riggs and Anschel 1973:70-71); Bonobo (Savage-Rumbaugh and Wilkerson 1978:338; Savage and Bakeman 1978:614); Spotted Hyena (Burr 1996:118-19). For conflicting information on the occurrence of clitoral penetration in Spotted Hyenas, see Glickman (1995). See also Morris (1956:261), who defines courtship as “the heterosexual reproductive communication system leading up to the consummatory sexual act” (Morris, D. [1956] “The Function and Causation of Courtship Ceremonies,” in M. Autuori and Fondation Singer-Polignac, L‘instinct dans le comportement des animaux et de l’homme [Paris: Masson et Cie.])

36

Savanna (Chacma) Baboon (Marais 1922/1969:215).

37

Ruff (van Rhijn 1991:21); Bonnet Macaque (Nolte 1955:179).

38