Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

And in fact just such a “broad” definition of heterosexuality is required in many cases. “Heterosexual pairs” in which little or no sexual activity occurs between partners have been reported for Greylag Geese (as mentioned above) and Lesser Scaup Ducks (Afton 1985:150), among others; see also Loy (1971:26) for “sexual” bonds between male and female Rhesus Macaques that do not involve mounting or copulation, and Smuts (1985:18, 163—66, 199, 213) on the platonic “pair-bonds” or “friendships” between male and female Savanna Baboons. In addition, in some “heterosexual pairs” of splendid fairy-wrens all offspring are fathered by males other than the female’s pair-bonded mate (i.e., she does not copulate—or at least is not fertilized by—her partner); see Russell, E., and L Rowley (1996) “Partnerships in Promiscuous Splendid Fairy-wrens,” in J. M. Black, ed., Partnerships in Birds: The Study of Monogamy, pp. 162-73 (Oxford: Oxford University Press). For an example of a “broad” definition of (hetero)sexuality that encompasses courtship activities in addition to overt copulatory behavior, see Tinbergen, N. (1965) “Some Recent Studies of the Evolution of Sexual Behavior,” in F. A. Beach, ed., Sex and Behavior, pp. 1—33 (New York: John Wiley and Sons).

48

In discussing the possible dangers of anthropomorphism in terminology, the comments of biologist John Bonner are instructive: “An anthropologist might find the use of words such as slaves or castes for ant colonies most undesirable … . For instance, it implies that the most repugnant human morals are ascribed to the members of some species of ant … . Much worse, it could imply that if ants have slavery, it is a natural thing to do and therefore quite justified in a human society. These arguments are not quite rational and can only be advanced under extreme fervor of one sort or another. A more reasoned objection would be that the motivations of ants and men might differ radically, but by using the same words this distinction is lost. A biologist, on the other hand, feels that the points made above are too obvious to interfere with the dual use of the words. He does not see any problem: in both ant and human slavery individuals forcibly capture members of their own species or related species and cause their captives to do work for the benefit of the captors. It is unnecessary to drag in all the possible political, psychological, or strictly human nuances; a very simple definition of the word is sufficient. There is no need to be tyrannized by words. If a biologist may not use the common words, he will be forced to invent a whole new set of jargon terms for nonhuman societies, an unfortunate direction since there are too many jargon words in any science as it is. I hope it will be sufficient if I make it clear in the beginning that words either invented or frequently used for human societies will also be used for animal societies with the understanding that I am not implying anything human in their meaning; they are to be considered simple descriptions of conditions.” (Bonner, J. T. [1980] The Evolution of Culture in Animals, pp. 9—10. [Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press].) Unfortunately, this eminently reasonable position has not been adopted by most biologists where homosexuality is concerned; for a counterview, sec Gowaty, “Sexual Terms in Sociobiology.”

49

Examples of species in which homosexual activity is given only cursory treatment compared to heterosexual activity are too numerous to list, but include White-tailed Deer (Hirth 1977), Wapiti (Harper et al. 1967), Fat-tailed Dunnart (Ewer 1968), Matschie’s Tree Kangaroo (Hutchins et al. 1991), Wattled Starling (Sontag 1991), Sage Grouse (Wiley 1973, Gibson and Bradbury 1986), and Canary-winged Parakeet (Arrowood 1988). In a few studies, however, detailed quantitative and descriptive information is provided on homosexual behavior; see, for example, Kitamura 1989, Kano 1992, de Waal 1987, 1995, 1997 (Bonobo); Edwards and Todd 1991 (White-handed Gibbon); Hanby 1974, Eaton 1978, Chapais and Mignault 1991, Vasey 1996 (Japanese Macaque); Pratt and Anderson 1985 (Giraffe); Jamieson and Craig 1987a (Pukeko); van Rhijn and Groothuis 1985, 1987 (Black-headed Gull); Rogers and McCulloch 1981 (Galah). For further discussion of how same-sex activity has frequently not been considered “genuine” sexual behavior, see the next section.

50

Spinner Dolphin (Wells 1984:468; Bateson 1974); Kob (Buechner and Schloeth 1965:219 [table 21]); Crested Black Macaque (Dixson 1977); Brown Capuchin (Linn et al. 1995); Giraffe (Dagg and Foster 1976:75—77).

51