Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

For examples of scientists who have argued (or suggested) that homosexuality promotes or strengthens social bonds or general social cohesion and stability, see Kano 1992:192 (Bonobo); Yamagiwa 1987a:1, 23, 1987b:37, Robbins 1996:944 (Gorilla); Weber and Vogel 1970:79 (Hanuman Langur); Reinhardt et al. 1986:55 (Rhesus Macaque); Rose 1992:97—98, 116—17 (Killer Whale); Coe 1967:319 (Giraffe); Nelson 1965:552 (Gray-headed Flying Fox); Heg and van Treuren 1998:688, Ens 1998:635 (Oystercatcher); Sauer 1972:735 (Ostrich); Rogers and McCulloch 1981:90 (Galah). One scientist suggests that homosexual activity in Bonobos, although promoting bonding between same-sex individuals, actually serves a more important role in heterosexual relations: “Homosexual activity became a way of tying males and females together in larger aggregations” (de Waal 1997:138); for a refutation of this type of heterocentric interpretation, see Parish (1996:65). For examples of homosexuality claimed to be a strategy of alliance or coalition building, including for the purpose of acquiring heterosexual mates, see Kano 1992, Idani 1991 (Bonobo); Vasey 1996 (Japanese Macaque, other species); Bernstein 1980:40 (Stumptail Macaque); Smuts and Watanabe 1990 (Savanna Baboon); Colmenares 1991 (Hamadryas Baboon); R. Wrangham and S. B. Hrdy, in Weinrich 1980:291 (Gelada Baboon, Hanuman Langur); Wells 1991:218-20 (Bottlenose Dolphin).

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See chapter 4 for further discussion and refutation of the idea that this is the motivation (or adaptive function) for homosexual associations.

56

Rhesus Macaque (Carpenter 1942:149); Bottlenose Dolphin (Wells 1991:220); both of these cases are highly speculative. The Rhesus example is based on an isolated observation of a single consortship and is a questionable interpretation, while the Bottlenose case is considerably more complex than it initially appears (see discussion below).

57

Parker, G. A., and R. G. Pearson (1976) “A Possible Origin and Adaptive Significance of the Mounting Behavior Shown by Some Female Mammals in Oestrus,” Journal of Natural History 10:241—45; Thompson-Handler et al. 1984:355-57 (Bonobo); African Elephant (Buss 1990); Greenshank, Golden Plover (Nethersole-Thompson 1975:55).

58

Species in which homosexual activity among females has only been reported outside the breeding season (or when females are not in heat) include Wapiti, Barasingha, Waterbuck, and Gray-headed Flying Foxes.

59

Japanese Macaque (Gouzoules and Goy 1983:47); Hanuman Langur (Srivastava et al. 1991:508).

60

Hanuman Langur (Srivastava et al. 1991:508); Calfbird (Trail 1990:1849-50); Cheetah (Caro and Collins 1987:59, 62; Caro 1993:25, 1994:252, 304); Savanna Baboon (Noë 1992:295). For specific descriptions of animals of the opposite sex being “disinterested” or not attracted by homosexual activity, see Gorilla (Harcourt et al. 1981:276); White-handed Gibbon (Edwards and Todd 1991:232—33); Japanese Macaque (Wolfe 1984, Vasey 1995:190; Corradino 1990:360); Killer Whale (Jacobsen 1986:152); Gray Whale (Darling 1978:51-52); Northern Fur Seal (Bartholomew 1959:168); African Buffalo (Mloszewski 1983:186); Rufous Rat Kangaroo (Johnson 1980:356); Dwarf Cavy (Rood 1970:442); Laughing Gull (Noble and Wurm 1943:205); Sage Grouse (Scott 1942:495).

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Bottlenose Dolphin (Florida—Wells 1991:219—20, Wells 1995; Ecuador—Félix 1997:14; Australia—Connor et al. 1992:419, 426; Bahamas—Herzing and Johnson 1997).

62

Squirrel Monkey (Travis and Holmes 1974:55); Stumptail Macaque (Chevalier-Skolnikoff 1976:524); Wolf (Zimen 1981:140); Savanna (Yellow) Baboon (Maxim and Buettner-Janusch 1963:176); Mountain Sheep (Geist 1971:162). For arguments against this being simple “displacement” or “redirected” (hetero)sexual activity, see chapter 4. On a related point, scientists have observed that male Oystercatchers in trios are unable to influence or “promote” homosexual activity among their female partners, yet males may suffer reproductive losses without the cooperation between females entailed by such same-sex activity (Heg and van Treuren 1998:690). Thus, males are essentially powerless to cultivate homosexual activity in females even when this activity may benefit them.

63

Dagg, “Homosexual Behavior and Female-Male Mounting in Mammals,” p. 179.

64

The one exception is R. Wrangham (quoted in Weinrich 1980:291), who suggests that male Gelada Baboons may essentially “perform” homosexual mounts in front of, and for the benefit of, females to demonstrate their mating “prowess.” This activity is not, however, claimed to be sexually stimulating for females in the same way that female homosexuality is claimed to be for males.

65

See discussion in chapter 4.

66