Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

Monogamy (absolute, or near absolute): Gyllensten, U. B., S. Jakobsson, and H. Temrin (1990) “No Evidence for Illegitimate Young in Monogamous and Polygynous Warblers,” Nature 343:168—70; Holthuijzen, A. M. A. (1992) “Frequency and Timing of Copulations in the Prairie Falcon,” Wilson Bulletin 104:333-38; Decker, M. D., P. G. Parker, D. J. Minchella, and K. N. Rabenold (1993) “Monogamy in Black Vultures: Genetic Evidence from DNA Fingerprinting,” Behavioral Ecology 4:29-35; Vincent, A. C. J., and L. M. Sadler (1995) “Faithful Pair Bonds in Wild Seahorses, Hippocampus whitei,” Animal Behavior 50:1557—69; Mauck, R. A., T. A. Waite, and P. G. Parker (1995) “Monogamy in Leach’s Storm-Petrel: DNA-Fingerprinting Evidence,” Auk 112:473— 82; Haydock, J., P. G. Parker, and K. N. Rabenold (1996) “Extra-Pair Paternity Uncommon in the Cooperatively Breeding Bicolored Wren,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 38:1—16; Fleischer, R. C., C. L. Tarr, E. S. Morton, A. Sangmeister, and K. C. Derrickson (1997) “Mating System of the Dusky Antbird, a Tropical Passerine, as Assessed by DNA Fingerprinting,” Condor 99:512—14; Piper, W. H., D. C. Evers, M.W. Meyer, K. B. Tischler, J. D. Kaplan, and R. C. Fleischer (1997) “Genetic Monogamy in the Common Loon (Gavia immer ),” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41:25-31; Kleiman, D. G. (1977) “Monogamy in Mammals,” Quarterly Review of Biology 52:39—69; Foltz, D.W (1981) “Genetic Evidence for Long-Term Monogamy in a Small Rodent, Peromyscus polionotus,” American Naturalist 117:665-75; Ribble, D. O. (1991) “The Monogamous Mating System of Peromyscus californicus As Revealed by DNA Fingerprinting,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 29:161—66; Brotherton, P. N. M., J. M. Pemberton, P. E. Komers, and G. Malarky (1997) “Genetic and Behavioral Evidence of Monogamy in a Mammal, Kirk’s Dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii),” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 264:675-81. Infidelity or nonmonogamy: Gladstone, D. E. (1979) “Promiscuity in Monogamous Colonial Birds,” American Naturalist 114:545-57; Gowaty, P. A., and D. W. Mock, eds., (1985) Avian Monogamy (Washington, D.C.: American Ornithologists’ Union); Birkhead, T. R., L. Atkin, and A. P. Møller (1986) “Copulation Behavior of Birds,” Behavior 101:101-38; Westneat, D. E, P.W. Sherman, and M. L. Morton (1990) “The Ecology and Evolution of Extra-pair Copulations in Birds,” Current Ornithology 7:331-69; Black, J. M., ed. (1996) Partnerships in Birds: The Study of Monogamy (Oxford: Oxford University Press); Richardson, P. R. K. (1987) “Aardwolf Mating System: Overt Cuckoldry in an Apparently Monogamous Mammal,” South African Journal of Science 83:405-10; Palombit 1994a,b (Gibbons); Sillero-Zubiri, C, D. Gottelli, and D. W. Macdonald (1996) “Male Philopatry, Extra-Pack Copulations, and Inbreeding Avoidance in Ethiopian Wolves (Canis simensis),” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 38:331-40.

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As noted earlier, females also avoid STDs by refraining from genital contact during such mountings. For both Razorbills and spotted sandpipers, see Wagner, R. H. (1991) “The Use of Extrapair Copulations for Mate Appraisal by Razorbills, Alca torda” Behavioral Ecology 2:198—203. See also Koala for an example of a species with high rates of STDs in wild populations (Brown et al. 1987; Weigler et al. 1988). For other species in which significant portions of nonmonogamous matings are nonprocreative, see the profiles of Snow Goose, Lesser Scaup Duck, Common Murre, Oystercatcher, Silver Gull, and Swallows.

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In addition to pair-bonding species in which nonmonogamous or alternate parenting arrangements are adopted by some individuals, the opposite situation also occurs. In some species in which the mating arrangement is typically polygamous or in which males do not usually participate in parenting, some individuals deviate from this pattern. Monogamous pair-bonding occurs in some Gray Seals (Amos et al. 1995) and Ruffs (Cramp and Simmons 1983:391), for example, even though most individuals are polygamous in these species, while some male Mallards (Losito and Baldassarre 1996:692) and Lyrebirds (Smith 1988:37— 38) occasionally parent their offspring even though males of these species generally do not contribute to parental duties.

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