Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

66. Eliade, Op. cit., page 20.

67. Scientific American, November 2000, pages 32–34.

68. Mellars and Stringer, Op. cit., page 367. Randall White further reports that many of the beads were made of ‘exotic’ materials – ivory, steatite, serpentine – the raw materials for which were obtained in some cases from 100 kilometres (60 miles) away. This raises the possibility of early ideas of trade. Ibid., 375–376. Different sites had similar motifs (sea shells, for example) at similar excavation levels, showing that early aesthetic ideas radiated between peoples (an early form of fashion?). Ibid., page 377.

69. Mithen, Op. cit., page 200.

70. David Lewis-Williams, The Mind in the Cave, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002, page 127.

71. Ibid., pages 199–200 and 216–217.

72. Ibid., pages 224–225.

73. Ibid., pages 285–286.

74. Will Knight and Rachel Nowak, ‘Meet our new human relatives’, New Scientist, 30 October 2004, pages 8–10.

CHAPTER 2: THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE AND THE CONQUEST OF COLD

1. The actual figures were 67 and 82 respectively, but this seems overly specific. Mithen, Op. cit., page 119.

2. Mellars and Stringer, Op. cit., page 343.

3. Klein with Edgard, Op. cit., page 19.

4. The Nelson Bay inhabitants had ostrich shells which they used as water containers on their journeys inland; those at Klasies did not.

5. Mithen, Op. cit., page 250. For the lice research, see: Douglas, Op. cit., page 28.

6. Mellars and Stringer, Op. cit., page 439.

7. Ibid., page 451.

8. Oppenheimer, Op. cit., pages 54 and 68.

9. Stuart J. Fiedel, The Pre-history of the Americas, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987, page 25.

10. Oppenheimer, Op. cit., page 215.

11. Ibid., page 225.

12. Brian Fagan, The Great Journey, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1987, pages 188–189.

13. Ibid., page 73.

14. Fiedel, Op. cit., page 27.

15. Fagan, Op. cit., page 79.

16. See Oppenheimer, Op. cit., page 233, for a map of the southerly routes.

17. Fagan, Op. cit., page 89.

18. Ibid., page 92. Though Berelekh is the most likely route taken by the palaeo-Indians, the Dyukhtai stone culture does not exactly resemble that found in north America and this is where another site comes in – Ushki, on the Kamchatka peninsula. Ushki is a large site of 100 square metres, where the stone tools at lower levels (12,000 BC) lack the wedge shape so characteristic of Dyukhtai. However, by later levels (8800 BC) the Dyukhtai tools are there. This raises the intriguing possibility that the Dyukhtai people pushed out the Ushki people, who were forced to look elsewhere. Fagan, Op. cit., pages 96–97. If Berelekh was the route taken, it would mean that early man travelled along the top of the world, walking or sailing (or rafting) along the shores of the East Siberian Sea and then the Chukchi Sea, to reach what is now Chukotskiy Poluostrov (Chukotsk peninsula). Uelen (Mys Dezhneva) is 50–60 miles from Cape Prince of Wales in Alaska. The very latest evidence traces the first Americans to the Jomon culture in Japan. International Herald Tribune, 31 July 2001.

19. Fagan, Op. cit., pages 108–109.

20. Ibid., page 111.

21. Frederick Hadleigh West, The Archaeology of Beringia, New York: Columbia University Press, 1981, pages 156, 164 and 177–178.

22. Fagan, Op. cit., pages 93ff.

23. Antonio Torroni, ‘Mitochondrial DNA and the origin of Native Americans’, in Colin Renfrew (editor), America Past, America Present: Genes and Language in the Americas and Beyond, Cambridge, England: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Papers in the Prehistory of Language, 2000, pages 77–87.

24. There is some evidence for Monte Verde being dated to 37,000 years ago and for Meadowcroft at 19,000 years ago. See: Oppenheimer, Op. cit., pages 287 and 291. But many archaeologists remain unconvinced.

25. Hadleigh West, Op. cit., page 87.

26. Fagan, Op. cit., page 92; Hadleigh West, Op. cit., page 132.