Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

53. In 1900, a Daoist known as Wang took up residence at the site of the Cave of a Thousand Buddhas, at Dunhuang in Gansu, an important monastic centre along the Silk Road. In the course of Wang’s exploration he noticed a gap in the plaster of one of the caves and, when he tapped it, he found it was hollow behind. This was how he discovered the so-called Library Cave, which contained 13,500 paper scrolls, from which daily life in eighth-century Dunhuang has since been recreated. These scrolls show that, in a town of 15,000, there were thirteen monasteries and that one in ten of the population was directly linked to these establishments, either as monks or nuns or as workpeople. Hansen, Op. cit., pages 245–251.

54. Gernet, Op. cit., page 295.

55. Hansen, Op. cit., page 198.

56. Mote, Op. cit., page 339.

57. See Hucker, Op. cit., page 370, for a portrait of Zhu Xi.

58. Lixue: alternatively, li-hsueh, see Ibid., page 365. Yong Yap et al., Op. cit., page 198.

59. Mote, Op. cit., page 342.

60. Yong Yap, et al., Op. cit. page 198.

61. Ibid., page 208.

62. Ibid., page 170. Wilkinson, Op. cit., page 686.

63. Yong Yap et al., Op. cit., page 171.

64. Ibid. Wilkinson, Op. cit., page 679.

65. Yong Yap et al., page 171. In the eleventh century, the emperor Song Huizong sent officials all over the country in search of rocks, strangeness of shape and texture being most sought-after, in particular limestone that had been turned into fantastic shapes by water, which were witness to the awe-inspiring forces of nature. These forces of life had to be lived with and the perfect garden was a reminder of that. See Hucker, Op. cit., page 260 for the role of grottoes and cliffs.

66. Yong Yap et al., Op. cit., page 172.

67. Gernet, Op. cit., page 341.

68. Mote, Op. cit., page 151.

69. Ibid.

70. Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, London: Eyre Methuen, 1973, pages 164ff and 179ff.

71. Mote, Op. cit., page 152. And see Hucker, Op. cit., page 263 for the difference between ‘clerical script’ and ‘cursive script’.

72. Mote, Op. cit., page 326.

73. Ibid., but see also: Robert P. Hymes, ‘The elite of Fy-Chou, Chiang-hsi’, in his Northern and Southern Sung, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1986. See also: Nathan Sivin, Science and Technology in East Asia, New York: Science History Publications, 1987, xv–xxi.

74. Abu-Lughod, Op. cit., page 4.

CHAPTER 15: THE IDEA OF EUROPE

1. Alfred W. Crosby, The Measure of Reality: Quantification and Western Society, 1250–1600, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1997, page 3.

2. Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1982, page 82.

3. The argument was also developed in Fernand Braudel, Civilisation and Capitalism, volume 2, 15–18th Centuries, The Wheels of Commerce, London: Collins, 1982, pages 68ff.

4. Michael McCormick, Origins of the European Economy: Communication and Commerce, AD 300–900, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001, page 794.

5. Ibid., pages 704–708.

6. Ibid., page 344.

7. Ibid., page 789.

8. Ibid., page 790. Recent underwater excavations have supported this argument. See: Dalya Alberge, ‘Shipwrecks cast new light on the Dark Ages’, The (London) Times, 9 June 2004, page 8.

9. McCormack, Op. cit., page 796.

10. Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony, Op. cit., page 4.

11. Ibid., page 3.

12. Ibid., page 19.

13. Ibid., page 357.

14. Ibid., page 34.

15. Ibid., page 360.

16. Needham, The Great Titration, Op. cit., page 121.

17. Ibid., page 150. But Frye, Op. cit., pages 194–195, says nearby Sogdiana was very different, with a thriving merchant class.

18. Toby E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science in Islam, China and the West, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993, page 120.

19. Ibid., page 129.

20. Ibid., page 189.

21. Douglas North and Robert Thomas, The Rise of the Western World, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1973, page 33.

22. Ibid., pages 34–35.

23. Ibid., page 41.

24. Carlo M. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000–1700 (third edition), London and New York: Routledge, 2003, page 141.