Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

36. Joan Peysor et al. (editors), The Orchestra, New York: Billboard, 1986, page 17. See Baines (editor), Op. cit., page 68, for more on Pythagoras. Ibid., page 53, also links the shawm to instruments in Ur. John Spitzer and Neal Zaslaw, The Birth of the Orchestra: History of an Institution, 1650–1815, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

37. Alfred Einstein, A Short History of Music, London: Cassell, 1936/1953, page 54.

38. Barnes, Op. cit., page 930.

39. Baines, Op. cit., page 117, who says, page 192, that Orfeo also made use of a double harp.

40. Barnes, Op. cit., page 932.

41. Hall, Cities in Civilisation, Op. cit., page 114. Sheldon Cheney, The Theatre: Three Thousand Years, London: Vision, 1952, page 266, says only a third of the plays have survived.

42. Hall, Op. cit., page 115.

43. Richard Stone, The Causes of the English Revolution, 1529–1642, London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1972, page 75.

44. L. C. Knights, Drama and Society in the Age of Jonson, London: Chatto & Windus, 1937, page 118. See also Cheney, Op. cit., pages 261ff, for the social changes behind the rise in theatre.

45. N. Zwager, Glimpses of Ben Jonson’s London, Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1926, page 10.

46. Hall, Op. cit., page 125.

47. Ibid., page 126.

48. See Annabel Patterson, Shakespeare and the Popular Voice, Oxford: Blackwell, 1989, pages 20–21, for repeated attempts to control the theatre.

49. See Cheney, Op. cit., page 264, for another candidate. Patterson, Op. cit., page 30, points out that at least five of the characters in Hamlet are university men.

50. Hall, Op. cit., page 130, and Cheney, Op. cit., page 169. See the latter source, page 271, for a rare, uncontested drawing of a Shakespearean theatre.

51. But see Patterson, Op. cit., page 33, for the cultural divisions of the time, and pages 49–50, for Shakespeare’s own attack on illiteracy.

52. Harold Bloom, The Western Canon, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1994, pages 46–47.

53. Ibid., pages 67–68. Cheney, Op. cit., page 273, for Shakespeare’s adaptations and hack writing.

54. Barnes, Op. cit., page 620.

55. Krailsheimer (editor), Op. cit., page 325, for La Celestina.

56. Angus Fletcher, Colors of the Mind, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1991. See also: William Byron, Cervantes, London: Cassell, 1979, pages 124ff, for the battle of Lepanto, and page 427 for more on the relation between the Don and Sancho Panza.

57. Byron, Op cit., page 430.

CHAPTER 20: THE MENTAL HORIZON OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

1. Valerie Flint, The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 1992, page 115.

2. Beatrice Pastor Bodmer, The Armature of Conquest, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1992, pages 10–11.

3. John Parker, Discovery, New York: Scribner, 1972, page 15.

4. Ibid., page 16.

5. Ibid., pages 18–19.

6. For the dimensions and speeds of Columbus’ ships, see E. Keble Chatterton, Sailing the Seas, London: Chapman & Hall, 1931, pages 150–151.

7. Parker, Op. cit., page 24.

8. Ibid., page 25.

9. Ibid., page 26.

10. To prove this once and for all, Alexander instructed Nearchus, a trusted officer, to sail back west to Persia, where Alexander would meet him. Nearchus’ voyage was eventful. He encountered people who lived only on fish – they even made bread out of fish; he saw terrifying whales which spouted water like geysers; and he was blown in all directions by unpredictable winds. But some of the ships made it and Nearchus and Alexander met up again in the Persian Gulf, having discovered the way to India by both land and sea. Parker, Op. cit., pages 30–32.

11. Ibid., page 33.

12. John Noble Wilford, The Mapmakers, New York: Vintage, 1982, pages 19–20.

13. For Eratosthenes’ map of the world, see: Ian Cameron, Lode Stone and Evening Star: The Saga of Exploration by Sea, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1965, page 32.

14. Parker, Op. cit., pages 48–49.

15. Ibid., page 51.

16. Evelyn Edson, Mapping Time and Space, London: British Library, 1997, pages 108–109, which includes a map showing Paradise in the east as a ‘sunburst-island’ with four rivers draining out of it.

17. Parker, Op. cit., page 54.

18. Ibid., page 55.