Нации и этничность в гуманитарных науках

This, however, had been contested by Italian writers since 1000, eventually leading to a renunciation of the Empire’s Roman and Imperial character by Gregory VII in the 1070s. Since then the term Teutonicus rose to the forefront of European diplomacy as a disparagement of the would-be Roman emperors. German authors slowly started using the term themselves, even though it was primarily used by pro-Papal writers at first. By the time of Conrad III (1138–1152), however, the German identity was commonly accepted by German writers, although the Frankish and Roman identities had still not been completely forgotten.

During the following half century, differing national narratives were implicitly accepted by various persons. While Conrad III and Frederick I (1152–1190) exhibited a more Frankish-based political worldview, the Roman Commune and the Papacy embraced two very different Roman identities. Among other Italian authors the rulers were perceived in markedly different fashions: imperialists called the emperor a Roman, while others called him a German barbarian. A Frank he could not be, as by this point this meant only the French – in Italian eyes. For German authors, however, no doubt existed: they were both German and Frankish, and sometimes even Roman, depending on the situation.

Keywords: German; Frankish; Roman; Conrad III (1138–1190); Frederick I (1152–1190); Rome, the Papacy; identity; coidentity; contested identity.

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