Остракизм в Афинах

In section 2 «Main stages of the ostracism9s history in connection with the evolution of political struggle in Classical Athens», after having studied the source information on specific ostracisms and their contexts, we managed to state a definite division of ostracism's history into period, as connected with changes in the character of public life in the fifth-century B.C. Athenian polis. With most grounds it is possible to mark out the following periods or stages in the functioning of ostracism:

I) 507–488 B.C.: ostracism exists only nominally and is not used in real political life;

II) 487–480 B.C.: sharp intensification in the use of ostracism (five cases during six years);

III) 479–462 B.C.: a period of «calm» (only one ostracism during almost two decades);

IV) 461–457 B.C.: new sharp intensification (three or four ostracisms during five years);

V) 456–416 B.C.: a new period of «calm» (one or two ostracisms during forty years);

VI) 415 B.C.: the last ostracism, which was essentially distinct from all previous ones in some of its characteristics;

VII) After 415 B.C.: ostracism exists only nominally and is not used in real political life.

Marking out these stages and considering them in total and in comparison allowed us to reveal important laws characteristic for the history of ostracism in the fifth century B.C. Intensification of using the institution took place, as a rule, when, first, constellation of political forces on some specific reasons took temporarily a «bipolar» character (two mighty alliances opposed to each other emerged out of many factions), and, second, debatable questions of external relations started playing a significant role in the political life.

19. With regard both for general character of Athenian political life of the Classical period and for empirical analysis of events connected with ostracism's history, it was possible to make conclusions reflected in section 3 «Functions of ostracism in the political system of the Athenian democracy and their evolution». As we have seen above (Chapter II), when the institution of ostracism in its «classical» form was introduced in the course of the late 6 century B.C. Clisthenic reforms, its main functions were «prophylactic» of tyranny and stasis, and control bv the demos over aristocratic political elite. However, eventually, during the 5 century B.C., ostracism gained some new functions, which in some degree became even principal and moved original ones to the background (one can say the further the more). Rival political leaders used ostracism as a powerful tool of struggling with each other, and for the demos it became a means of choice (in a situation of bipolar opposition) between those leaders and their political lines (first of all external ones). It is possible also to say that ostracism was a peculiar means of compensating frustration within the citizen body in conditions of direct polis democracy, and a means rather humane).

It is necessary to note one more circumstance: ostracism, an aristocratic by its origin institution in the democratic polis, kept by tradition its orientation to members of the highest layer of the noble elite, and in this respect it can be considered a measure if not honourable, then in any case emphasizing great importance and authority of a politician who was subject to it.

20. Section 4 «Ostracism and political propaganda» contains materials and conclusions, which still are in many respects preliminary. As far as we know, nobody has yet dealt seriously with this aspect of the ostracism topic. Accordingly, we saw our task in this section not to obtain any results final and categorically formulated (it is rather impossible at the present stage) but to state the problem, to point out its existence and to mark some prospects for further study.

The chronological periods of preparing and carrying out ostracisms were, at the same time, periods of sharp propaganda struggle of rival political groups and their leaders. The struggle became most active during the "election campaign" (however inaccurate is the expression), that is during the time between the preliminary decision on ostracism by the assembly and the voting as such.

Propaganda at such periods took a character personal in a great degree and also discrediting. It was conditioned both by the general important role of personal factor in political life of the Greek polis and by peculiarities of such an institution as ostracism, for it was in it essence directed against «powerful persons». A favourite method of propaganda was, in particular, so to say, «pinning labels», or, to say more terminologically, using personal invectives of various character, which actualized in public opinion one or another «image of enemy» and projected it to particular men. Such invectives, engendered undoubtedly by propaganda, are present in inscription on ostraka in sufficient quantity.