Augustus

The introduction is an imagined narration of Augustus’ death. I take as my premise the proposition that the sometimes extraordinary stories told by the ancient sources are broadly correct, and attempt as satisfactory an explanation as possible. My central assumption is that the regime was, over-whelmingly and rightly, determined to effect as painless a transition as possible from Augustus to his successor. I note that the regime’s obsession with maintaining its power was accompanied by an undeviating patriotism and a willingness to sacrifice personal interests. Although there are problems and implausibilities with the stories, the explanation I offer is, just about, credible. This is how it might have happened. I use Suetonius’ Life of Augustus, especially chapters 97 to 100; Tacitus 15, 6; Dio 56 29–30; Velleius 2102, 123.

“Poor Rome” Suet Tib 21 2.

I. SCENES FROM A PROVINCIAL CHILDHOOD

The main ancient sources for this chapter are Suetonius and Nicolaus. The stories classical writers tell of the childhood of famous men are unreliable. That of Augustus is no exception. Children were of little intrinsic interest to Roman adults and their doings were seldom recorded, so historians devised fictional beginnings appropriate to their subjects’ later lives and propaganda needs. I have tried to weed out obviously legendary material (to which I return when dealing with the period when it was probably invented). Nicolaus knew Augustus, who may have been the source of the more day-to-day events of his early life.

“coin-stained hands” Suet Aug 42.

“came from a rich old equestrian family” Ibid., 23.

bad prognosis This story, told with circumstantial detail in Dio 45 1, may be a later invention by historians and biographers wishing to create an appropriately interesting childhood for Augustus.

“a small room” Suet Aug 6.

“a dignified person” Vell Pat 2592.

“a talking instrument” Varro 117.

“I can prove” Suet Aug 71.

“justly and courageously” Ibid., 32.

many health hazards This paragraph draws on Jackson, especially pp. 37, 42–43, 46.

by his maternal grandmother Nic 3.

Atia won a reputation Ibid.

“We must apply to our fellow-countrymen” Cic De Or 3137.

“There was not a great difference” Castle, p. 129.

“a good man skilled in speech” Quint Inst Or 12 1.

“humble origin” Suet Gaius 23 1.

He may have come from Venetia Syme AA p. 44.

According to Aulus Gellius Aul Gell 16 16 1–4.

born in this perilous manner Pliny 745.

II. THE GREAT-UNCLE

Most of the personal characteristics I ascribe to Julius Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Cato, and Mark Antony are drawn from the accounts given in Plutarch and Suetonius. Again Nicolaus is useful. Caesar’s own history of the civil war is accurate but self-serving. Appian is valuable.

“From now onward” Vell Pat 233.

optimates I use the English form, for the Latin word can only be used in the plural.

“His dress was” Suet Caes 45 3.

“It was really very difficult” Plut Cat Min 12.

“That cannot be true” Ibid., 19 4.

“Caesar was the only sober man” Suet Caes 53.

“in common with Antony’s” Plut Ant 25.

“provoked by the sight of her” App 58.

“for he often helped others” Plut Ant 43.

they quietly sent Gaius Nic 4.

“Let the dice fly high!” Plut Pomp 60 2.

“the new style of conquest” Cic Att 174c (97c).

“He does not know” Suet Caes 36.

III. A POLITICAL MASTER CLASS

Nicolaus remains a source for anecdotes about Gaius. Plutarch’s and Suetonius’ lives of Caesar throw light on Caesar’s activities, as do Appian and the commentaries on the Alexandrian war and the African war, written by Caesarian supporters. Plutarch’s life of Cato recounts his suicide. Here and elsewhere I am indebted to Michael Grant’s Cleopatra.

“I shall have the whole Senatorial” Dio 45 2 5–6.

“with body and limbs” Suet Aug 79 2.

“He attracted many women” Nic 4.

“he was of age” Ibid.

“The year/Drags for orphan boys” Hor Ep 1121–22.

Alexander the Great’s Macedonian commanders For more on Alexander, see Green, Peter, Alexander of Macedon (London: Penguin, 1974), and on his successors the same author’s Alexander to Actium (London: Thames and Hudson, 1990).