Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

McVean, G., and L. D. Hurst (1996) “Genetic Conflicts and the Paradox of Sex Determination: Three Paths to the Evolution of Female Intersexuality in a Mammal,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 179:199-211; King, A. S. (1981) “Phallus,” in A. S. King and J. McLelland, eds., Form and Function in Birds, vol. 2, pp. 107—47 (London: Academic Press).

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Walrus (Fay 1982:39—40); Layne, J.N. (1954) “The Os Clitoridis of Some North American Sciuridae,” Journal of Mammalogy 35:357-66; Bray, K. (1996) “Size Is Nothing at All: Female Fish Has Novel Way to Adapt to Mate’s Lack of Penis,” BBC Wildlife 14(11):15.

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Chaffinch (Marler 1956:113—14, 163 [table XI]); African jacana (Jenni, D. A. [1996] “Jacanidae [jacanas],” p. 282, in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds., Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks, pp. 276—91 [Barcelona: Lynx Edicións]). For further examples and statistics on the widespread occurrence of matings that “fail” to result in insemination, see Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 399—403.

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For a general survey of mating harassment in primates, see Niemeyer, C. L., and J.R. Anderson (1983) “Primate Harassment of Matings,” Ethology and Sociobiology 4:205-20.

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Asiatic Elephant (Eisenberg et al. 1971:205). For specific examples of male and female genitalia that do not “fit,” see Eberhard, W. G. (1985) Sexual Selection and Animal Genitalia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press). On the hostility of the female’s reproductive tract to sperm, see Birkhead, T. R., A. P. Møller, and W. J. Sutherland (1993) “Why Do Females Make It So Difficult for Males to Fertilize Their Eggs?” Journal of Theoretical Biology 161:51-60; Birkhead, T., and A. Møller (1993) “Female Control of Paternity,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8:100-104; Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 331—49.

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Musk-ox (Smith 1976:54—55).

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Clutton-Brock, T. H., and G. A. Parker (1995) “Sexual Coercion in Animal Societies,” Animal Behavior 49:1345-65; Smuts, B. B., and R. W. Smuts (1993) “Male Aggression and Sexual Coercion of Females in Nonhuman Primates and Other Mammals: Evidence and Theoretical Implications,” Advances in the Study of Behavior 22:1-63; Palmer, C. T. (1989) “Rape in Nonhuman Animal Species: Definitions, Evidence, and Implications,” Journal of Sex Research 26:355-74; McKinney et al. 1983 (Ducks).

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For further examples and references, see Le Boeuf and Mesnick 1991 (Northern Elephant Seal); Miller et al. 1996 (Northern Fur Seal).

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Pronghorn (Geist 1990:283).

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Besides mating during the nonbreeding season or during menstruation or pregnancy, many female mammals also copulate during anovulatory cycles, that is, menstrual cycles during which ovulation has not taken place (Baker and Bellis, Human Sperm Competition, pp. 69-70; Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 133-39).

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Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 3—5, 202.

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Birkhead et al., “Why Do Females Make It So Difficult for Males to Fertilize Their Eggs?” p. 52; Birkhead and Møller, “Female Control of Paternity,” p. 101; Ginsberg, J. R., and U. W. Huck (1989) “Sperm Competition in Mammals,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 4:74-79; Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 81-94.

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