Древняя Русь и Скандинавия: Избранные труды

Temporal suspension of trade with a specifi c partner by Novgorod authorities seems rather a common practice. The First Novgorod chronicle tells s. a. 1188 about a confl ict between Novgorodian and German merchants on Gotland[1258] which resulted in the break of trade peace. Russian merchants were not allowed to go overseas while Scandinavian merchants left Novgorod «without peace» and with no offi cials to accompany them, i.e. with no one to secure their safety en route[1259].

The mention of the absence of kaupfriðr on a state level for a period of time presupposes its existence earlier. It might mean that some time before the 1030s a trade treaty had been concluded by Russian and Norwegian rulers which established offi cial kaupfriðr between the two countries.

There are no grounds to suppose that this treaty appeared before Jaroslav’s times. It could have been rather a result of Jaroslav’s active policy in the Baltic, and the possible span of time for its conclusion is rather short. A treaty with Olaf Haraldsson’s Norway was impossible while Jaroslav maintained close and friendly relations with Knut. It was the time when Olaf’s enemies were well received in Rus’, like Eymund Hringsson employed by Jaroslav in 1018 (1019). Only after Jaroslav joined the Swedish and Norwegian alliance against Denmark which emerged after Anund-Jacob’s enthronization in 1022, the treaty could have been concluded. The defeat of Olaf Haraldsson in 1028 and his escape to Sweden and Rus’ is the upper limit for the conclusion of the treaty.

The exact time Jaroslav joined the alliance is unknown but its most probable date can be suggested. The middle of the 1020s was crucial for Jaroslav’s position in Rus. In 1023 Jaroslav’s brother Mstislav, the prince of Tmutarakan, took the opportunity of Jaroslav being in Novgorod and attacked Kiev in an attempt to become Great prince. Though Mstislav failed, Jaroslav collected an army in Novgorod and in 1024 met Mstislav at Listven not far from Chernigov. Jaroslav got defeated and had to escape back to Novgorod. For two years Jaroslav resided in Novgorod before he came to an agreement with Mstislav in 1026 and returned to Kiev. It seems reasonable to suppose that the most suitable time for Jaroslav to conclude a trade treaty with Norway was the period between 1024 and 1026 when he permanently stayed in Novgorod. It was the time when Jaroslav consolidated his political and economic position, and the revision of his international relations was appropriate. For Norway with its traditional contacts with England violated by the rivalry of Knut and Olaf, Novgorod, one of the richest centers of the Baltic trade and tightly connected with Scandinavian countries from of old, was a desirable partner. So, the most probable time for the conclusion of a trade treaty by Jaroslav and Olaf Haraldsson was 1024–1026.

The saga can also provide some indications as to the content of the treaty. The term kaupfriðr corresponding exactly to the Old Russian torgovyj mir, «trade peace», and «a trade treaty», implied fi rst and foremost the freedom of trade for foreign merchants and some warrants for their personal safety. The experience Karl and Björn encountered in a Russian town illustrate what the absence of kaupfriðr meant for a merchant.

Having arrived in Rus’, Karl and Björn found themselves in trouble only after the citizens came to know that the newcomers were Norwegians. The prohibition of trade thus concerned only Norway whereas the trade with other countries seems not to be aff ected. The rupture of the trade with Gotlanders in 1188 is presented in the same way in the First Novgorod chronicle, as an action directed only against the off ender party.

The local citizens are told to have refused to sell anything to the brothers and to have prepared to attack them. The interdict of trade with Norwegians seems to have caused two main problems. On the one hand, it excluded any business with Norwegians, not only large-scale operations, but even minor purchases, like those the brothers wanted to make («some necessities for themselves»). On the other hand, it provoked the citizens to attack the Norwegians who «made them no hostilities». The aim of the attack, as summed up by Karl, was to «maim or rob» the merchants. It seems that in the absence of kaupfriðr the citizens regarded the merchants to be an easy booty. The lack of responsibility for the merchants’ safety could result from the fact that neither their lives, nor their wares were secured according to a valid agreement. However, the mention of a possible displeasure of Jaroslav stopped the assaulters.