Gulag

11. Exhibition at the Vorkuta Kraevedchesky Muzei; also “Vorkutinstroi NKVD” (MVD document of January 1941), in the collection of Syktyvkar Memorial, Komi Republic; Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 192.

12. Kaneva, p. 339.

13. Nadezhda Ignatova, “Spetspereselentsy v respublike Komi v 1930–1940 gg,” in Korni travy, pp. 23–25.

14. Ibid., pp. 25 and 29.

15. N. A. Morozov, GULAG v Komi krae, pp. 13–14.

16. Kaneva, pp. 337–38.

17. Nadezhda Ignatova, “Spetspereselentsy v respublike Komi v 1930–1940 gg,” in Korni travy, pp. 23–25.

18. Kaneva, p. 342.

19. Ibid.

20. Stephan, The Russian Far East, p. 225.

21. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag”; I am indebted to David Nordlander’s work on Kolyma—so far the only comprehensive, archive-based Western study of Kolyma—for the account of Kolyma’s history in this section and elsewhere.

22. Ibid.

23. Viktor Shmirov of the Perm Memorial Society, conversation with the author, March 31, 1998.

24. Shmirov, “Lager kak model Realnosti.”

25. Stephan, The Russian Far East, p. 225.

26. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

27. Ibid.

28. Stephan, The Russian Far East, p. 226.

29. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

30. Stephan, The Russian Far East, p. 227.

31. Kozlov, “Sevvostlag NKVD SSSR.”

32. Stephan, The Russian Far East, p. 226.

33. Conquest, Kolyma, p. 42.

34. Sgovio, p. 153.

35. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, p. 369.

36. Kozlov, “Sevvostlag NKVD SSSR,” p. 81; Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

37. Ioffe, pp. 66–71.

38. Kozlov, “Sevvostlag NKVD SSSR,” p. 82.

39. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, p. 201.

40. Ibid.

41. GARF, 9414/1/OURZ, in the collection of A. Kokurin.

42. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud,” p. 78.

43. Ibid.; Okhotin and Roginsky, pp. 376, 399, and 285.

44. Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 38.

6: The Great Terror and Its Aftermath

1. Akhmatova, p. 103.

2. Bacon, pp. 30 and 122. Bacon compiled his figures from various sources, adding together all of the different categories of forced laborers. See Appendix for further discussion of statistics.

3. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. I, p. 24.

4. Unless otherwise footnoted, this account of the Great Terror comes from Conquest, The Great Terror; Khlevnyuk, 1937; Getty and Naumov; and Martin, “The Great Terror.”

5. Getty and Naumov, p. 472.

6. Trud, no. 88, June 4, 1992; reprinted in Getty and Naumov, pp. 472–77; many similar documents are found in Sabbo, pp. 297–304.

7. Sabbo, pp. 297–304.

8. Kokurin and Petrov, Lubyanka, p. 15.

9. Veronica Znamenskaya, “To This Day,” in Vilensky, Till, My Tale Is Told, pp. 141–49.

10. Yurasova.

11. GARF, personnel files. Also Kokurin and Petrov, Gulag, pp. 797–857.

12. GARF, 8131/37/99.

13. This account of Berzin’s arrest comes from Nordlander’s “Capital of the Gulag” and “Magadan and the Evolution of the Dalstroi Bosses.”

14. Conquest, The Great Terror, pp. 182–213

15. Yelena Sidorkina, “Years Under Guard,” in Vilensky, Till, My Tale Is Told, p. 194.

16. GARF, 9401/12/94.

17. Conquest, The Great Terror, p. 298.

18. Geller, pp. 151–57.

19. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 96.

20. Kokurin and Petrov, Gulag, pp. 863–69.

21. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 95–96; Makurov, pp. 183–84.

22. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, p. 180.

23. Ibid., p. 60; Volkogonov, Stalin, p. 279.

24. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, pp. 36 and 497; Sbornik , pp. 86–93.

25. Larina, p. 182.

26. Levinson, pp. 39–42.

27. Gorky, Belomor, p. 341.

28. Weiner, “Nature, Nurture and Memory in a Socialist Utopia.”

29. Herling, p. 10.

30. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 95.

31. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, p. 449.

32. Leipman, p. 38.

33. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

34. Makurov, p. 160.

35. Chukhin, Kanaloarmeetsi, p. 120.

36. Shmirov.

37. Quoted in Shmirov, ibid.

38. Trud, no. 88, June 4, 1992, reprinted in Getty and Naumov, pp. 479–80; N. A. Morozov, conversation with the author, July 2001.

39. Papkov.

40. GARF, 9414/1/OURZ, in the collection of A. Kokurin.

41. This was Prikaz 00447, analyzed by N. Petrov and A. Roginsky, “Polskaya operatsiya NKVD, 1937–1938 gg,” in Guryanov, Repressii protiv polyakov, pp. 22–43.

42. Memorialne kladbishche Sandormokh, pp. 3 and 160–67 (a collection of documents about the executions of Sandormokh). Another source cites the date of the NKVD order on the repression of prisoners as August 16, 1937 (Binner, Junge, and Martin).

43. Florensky, pp. 777–80, from Chirkov.

44. Memorialne kladbishche Sandormokh, pp. 167–69.

45. Hoover, Nicolaevsky Collection, Box 233, Folder 23; also N. A. Morozov, GULAG v Komi krae, p. 28.

46. Conquest, The Great Terror, pp. 286–87.