Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

68. Ibid., page 68. See Jacque le Goff, ‘The time of Purgatory’, in The Medieval Imagination, Op. cit., pages 67–77.

69. The effects of Trent: to begin with, the struggle against Protestantism was viewed by the church as a fight with heretics, with break-away sects, as had happened with the Cathars in the twelfth century. For example, the Duke of Alva, who led the reign of terror deemed necessary to keep the Low Countries safe for Catholic Spain, had his portrait painted showing him as a Crusader. No less a figure than Vasari was commissioned to paint two pictures in the Vatican, depicting two episodes of the 1570s, ‘as if they were equally important Catholic victories’. They were the battle of Lepanto, where the Turkish navy was defeated; and the St Bartholomew’s Day massacre, where ‘numberless’ Protestants in Paris were snatched from their beds and murdered in the streets. Such was the Catholic joy at this grisly ‘victory’ that a commemorative medal was struck, which actually showed the Huguenots being slaughtered. Gascoigne, Op. cit., page 187.

70. Ibid., page 185. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 419.

71. Gascoigne, Op. cit., page 419.

72. Ibid., page 186.

73. Ibid., page 189.

74. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 558ff, for Xavier in Japan.

75. Gascoigne, Op. cit., pages 192–193; and Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 560–561 for the crucifixions.

76. MacCulloch, Op. cit., page 586.

77. Ibid., page 587.

78. Ibid., page 589.

79. Ibid., page 651.

80. Rudolf Wittkower, Art and Architecture in Italy: 1600–1750, London: Penguin, 1958/1972, page 1.

81. Ibid.

82. Germain Bazin, The Baroque, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1968, page 36, for the religiosity of famous artists.

83. Wittkower, Op. cit., page 12.

84. Much of the coloured marble for St Peter’s was taken from ancient buildings. Wittkower, Op. cit., page 10.

85. Peter and Linda Murray, Penguin Dictionary of Art and Artists, Op. cit., page 38.

86. Wittkower, Op. cit., page 17.

87. Bazin, Op. cit., pages 104–105.

88. Wittkower, Op. cit., page 18.

CHAPTER 23: THE GENIUS OF THE EXPERIMENT

1. Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800, New York: Free Press, 1949, revised edition 1957.

2. Margaret J. Ostler (editor), Rethinking the Scientific Revolution, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2000, page 25.

3. J. D. Bernal, Science in History, Op. cit., page 132.

4. Ibid., page 133. See also: MacCulloch, Reformation, Op. cit., page 78. And: Richard H. Popkin, The Third Force in Seventeenth-Century Thought, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992, page 102.

5. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science in Islam, China and the West, Op. cit., page 73.

6. Ibid., pages 57ff.

7. Ibid., page 226. See also: Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, volume 1, Language, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953, pages 230–243.

8. Bernal, Op. cit., page 134.

9. Thomas Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy and the Development of Western Thought, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957/1976, page 156.

10. Ibid., page 157.

11. Ibid., page 159.

12. Though its introduction was suppressed by a fearful editor. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 435.

13. Kuhn, Op. cit., page 160.

14. Ibid., page 166.

15. Ibid., page 168.

16. Moynahan, Op. cit., for Galileo’s attitude to the Bible: ‘Not a scientific manual.’

17. Leonardo had drawn the first musket in the West. Kuhn, Op. cit., page 174.

18. Ibid., page 183.

19. Boyer, A History of Mathematics, Op. cit., pages 326–327.

20. Michael White, Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer, Op. cit., page 11.

21. Kuhn, Op. cit., page 189.

22. Boyer, Op. cit., page 393. For Wordsworth see: Boorstin, The Seekers, Op. cit., 296.

23. Boyer, Op. cit., page 391.

24. Kuhn, Op. cit., page 192.

25. Boyer, Op. cit., page 333.

26. Ibid., page 317; and Boorstin, Op. cit., page 161.

27. Boyer, Op. cit., pages 310–312.

28. Ibid., page 314.

29. White, Op. cit., page 205.

30. Boyer, Op. cit., page 398.

31. J. D. Bernal, The Extension of Man, Op. cit., page 207.