Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

69. Mayr, Op. cit., page 321.

70. Locy, Op. cit., page 213.

71. Roch (editor), Op. cit., pages 80ff.

72. Locy, Op. cit., page 216.

73. Ibid., page 217.

74. He later observed the same phenomenon in the webbing of a frog’s foot, and in the tails of young fishes and eels.

75. Mayr, Op. cit., page 138. Marcello Malpighi in Italy and Nehemiah Grew in England brought the microscope to bear not on animals but on plants. An interest in plants had been stimulated by the exotic species brought back from the New World (and Africa) by explorers. Ibid., pages 100–101. Both men published superbly illustrated books on the anatomy of plants and, by an extraordinary coincidence, on the very day that Grew’s book was delivered from the printer, Malpighi’s manuscript was deposited at the Royal Society in London. Ibid., page 387. In Malpighi’s book Anatome plantarum, the cells which make up the various structures are named utriculi. He observed different kinds of cells within plants – those that carry air, sap, and so on, and the same is broadly true of Grew in his book The Anatomy of Plants. Ibid., page 385. But, although he observed cells, referring to them as ‘bladders’, Grew did not explore them any further either (others later called cells ‘bubbles’). Neither man realised that the cell was the basic building block of life, from which all more complex organisms are constructed. The idea was not developed for more than two centuries.

76. Mayr, Op. cit., pages 100 and 658–659.

77. Tarnas, The Passion of the Western Mind, Op. cit., page 272.

78. Ibid., page 273; see also Boorstin, Op. cit., pages 155 and 158.

79. Tarnas, Op. cit., page 274.

80. Robert Merton, Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth-Century England, Bruges, 1938, chapter 15.

81. Boyer, Op. cit., page 336.

82. Ibid., page 337; and Boorstin, Op. cit., pages 166–167.

83. Cartesian geometry is now synonymous with analytical geometry.

84. Tarnas, Op. cit., page 277. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 164. Popkin, Op. cit., pages 237–238.

85. Tarnas, Op. cit., pages 280–281.

86. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., pages 183–184.

87. Bernal, Science in History, Op. cit., page 462. Zimmer, Op. cit., pages 183ff, for the very first meeting; he says that originally there was a list of forty potential members.

88. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 182. Zimmer, Op. cit., page 95, says there was another early Oxford group: the Oxford Experimental Philosophy Group.

89. Zimmer, Op. cit., page 184.

90. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 185; see also Zimmer, Op. cit., pages 96 and 100.

91. Lisa Jardine, Ingenious Pursuits: Building the Scientific Revolution, New York: Doubleday, 1999; see also Zimmer, Op. cit., pages 185–186. Lisa Jardine, The Curious Life of Robert Hooke: The Man who Measured London, London: HarperCollins, 2003.

92. Mordechai Feingold, The Mathematicians’ Apprenticeship: Science, Universities and Society in England: 1560–1640, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1984, pages 6, 122 and 215.

93. Ibid., page 215.

94. Peter Burke, A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot, Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2000, 45.

95. Ibid., page 103.

96. Ibid., page 135.

97. Ostler (editor), Op. cit., page 43.

98. Ibid., page 44.

99. Ibid., page 45.

100. Ibid., page 49. Carl Zimmer’s point, about the Oxford Experimental Philosophy Group (note 88 above), underlines this aspect.

101. In Ostler (editor), Op. cit., page 50.

CHAPTER 24: LIBERTY, PROPERTY AND COMMUNITY: THE ORIGINS OF CONSERVATISM AND LIBERALISM

1. Schulze, States, Nations and Nationalism, Op. cit., page 17.

2. John Bowle, Western Political Thought, London: Cape, 1947/1954, page 288.

3. Schulze, Op. cit., page 28.

4. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 28.

5. Allan H. Gilbert, The Prince and Other Works, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941, page 29.

6. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 31.