Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

63. Not that the deists were wholly negative in their views. A variant form of deism accepted the true Christianity of Jesus, but rejected the Christianity as it had grown up in the church.

64. Barnes, Op. cit., page 794.

65. Preserved Smith, History of Modern Culture, Op. cit., volume 2, page 522.

66. See in particular the sections on scepticism in Stephen Buckle, Hume’s Enlightenment Tract, Oxford: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 2001, for example, pages 111–118, 167–168, 270–280.

67. Ibid., pages 289–294.

68. Herrick, Op. cit., page 105.

69. Barnes, Op. cit., page 805.

70. Herrick, Op. cit., page 33. There are those who doubt that Bayle was a true sceptic, but see him instead as a ‘fideist’, a believer who thought it his Christian duty to air his doubts, as a way to encourage others to be stronger in their faith. Roy Porter, The Enlightenment, London: Palgrave, 2001, page 15. There were also many French sceptics grouped around Denis Diderot (1713–1784), and his Encyclopédie. Figures such as d’Alembert and Helvétius argued, as Hume did, that what people learn as infants tends to stay with them all their lives, for good or ill.

71. Herrick, Op. cit., page 29; Barnes, Op. cit., page 813; and Redwood, Op. cit., page 32.

72. Armstrong, A History of God, Op. cit., page 350.

73. Redwood, Op. cit., page 35.

74. Israel, Op. cit., pages 41 and 60.

75. Redwood, Op. cit., page 35.

76. Ibid., page 181.

77. Ibid., page 187.

78. Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza, Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1979, pages 215–216. See also the same author’s The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (revised and expanded edition), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Redwood, Op. cit., page 34.

79. Barnes, Op. cit., page 816.

80. Redwood, Op. cit., page 120.

81. Israel, Op. cit., page 605.

82. In some geology departments in modern universities, 23 October is still ‘celebrated’, ironically, as the anniversary of the earth’s birthday.

83. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, Op. cit., page 315.

84. Rosenberg and Bloom, The Book of J, Op. cit.

85. Israel, Op. cit., page 142.

86. Redwood, Op. cit., page 131.

87. Mayr, Op. cit., page 316.

88. Boyle actually said that he believed in ‘natural morality’. Herrick, Op. cit., page 39.

89. Barnes, Op. cit., page 821.

CHAPTER 26: FROM SOUL TO MIND: THE SEARCH FOR THE LAWS OF HUMAN NATURE

1. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., pages 247ff.

2. Boorstin, The Seekers, Op. cit., page 193 for Voltaire’s flight to London, and its effects. Geoffrey Hawthorn, Enlightenment and Despair: A History of Social Theory, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1976, page 11, for Voltaire’s education and how it bred intellectual independence; and pages 10–11 for the English influence on the French Enlightenment (Locke and Newton).

3. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 249.

4. Ibid.

5. Quoted Ibid., page 250.

6. Ibid., page 251.

7. Raymond Naves, Voltaire et l’Encyclopédie, Paris, 1938.

8. P. N. Furbank, Diderot, London: Secker & Warburg, 1992, page 73.

9. Ibid., page 84. See also: Boorstin, Op. cit., page 196.

10. Furbank, Op. cit., page 87.

11. After many problems. See Ibid., page 92.

12. Norman Hampson, The Enlightenment, page 53.

13. Ibid., pages 53–54.

14. Alfred Ewert, The French Language, London: Faber & Faber, 1964, pages 1–2.

15. Ibid., pages 8–9.

16. M. K. Pope, From Latin to Modern French, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1952, page 49.

17. Ibid., pages 51 and 558.

18. Joachim du Bellay, The Defence and Illustration of the French Language, translated by Gladys M. Turquet, London: Dent, 1939, pages 26ff and 80ff.

19. Ewert, Op. cit., page 19. French was spoken in England, at the court, in Parliament, and in the law courts, from the twelfth century to the end of the thirteenth, though it remained a court language until the fifteenth century and was not displaced by English in the records of lawsuits until the eighteenth.

20. Arnold Hauser, The Social History of Art, volume 3, New York: Vintage/Knopf, n.d., page 52.

21. Q. D. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public, London: Bellew, 1932/1965, page 83.