Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

3. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 307. Depending on which scholar you listen to, there were many other ‘revolutions’ in the eighteenth century – for example, the demographic, the chemical and the agricultural among them.

4. David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, New York: Norton/Abacus, 1998/1999, page 42.

5. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 520.

6. Ibid.

7. Peter Hall, Cities in Civilisation, Op. cit., page 310.

8. Ibid., page 312.

9. Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1979, page 90.

10. Hall, Op. cit., page 313.

11. David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present Day, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1969, pages 302–303.

12. Peter Lane, The Industrial Revolution, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978, page 231. See Samuel Smiles, The Lives of Boulton and Watt, London: John Murray, 1865, pages 182–198, for Watt’s transfer to Birmingham.

13. Hall, Op. cit., page 315.

14. Lane, Op. cit., pages 68–69.

15. Hall, Op. cit., page 316.

16. Ibid., page 319.

17. Ibid., page 308.

18. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 41.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Hall, Op. cit., pages 311–312.

22. Deane, Op. cit., page 22.

23. Ibid.

24. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., pages 64–65.

25. Ibid., page 5.

26. Ibid., page 7.

27. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1962, page 63.

28. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 7.

29. Hall, Op. cit., page 308.

30. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 262.

31. Ibid., page 282.

32. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 600.

33. Ibid., pages 286–287.

34. Kleist is ignored in many histories. See Michael Brian Schiffer, Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003, page 46.

35. In turn, in the hands of André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and Georg Ohm (1787–1854), far more was learned about magnetic fields produced by currents and the way these flowed through conductors. Current electricity was now a quantitative science. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 285.

36. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 620.

37. Ibid., page 621.

38. Jean-Pierre Poirier, Lavoisier: Chemist, Biologist, Economist, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996, pages 72ff, ‘The Oxygen Dispute’. Nick Lane, Oxygen: The Molecule that Made the World, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

39. Poirier, Op. cit., pages 72ff.

40. Ibid., pages 102ff, for the new chemistry; pages 105ff for the formation of acids; page 107 for combustion; pages 61ff for the calcinations of metals; and page 150 for the analysis of water.

41. John Dalton, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, London: R. Bickerstaff, 1808–1827 (reprinted 1953), volume II, section 13, pages 1ff and volume I, pages 231ff. And see the diagrams facing page 218.

42. Barnes, Op. cit., page 681.

43. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 625.

44. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 323.

45. Ibid., page 324.

46. Robin Reilly, Josiah Wedgwood, 1730–1795, London: Macmillan, 1992, page 183.

47. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 325.

48. Reilly, Op. cit., page 314.