Календарные обычаи и обряды в странах зарубежной Европы: Исторические корни и развитие обычаев

This volume concludes the 4-volume publication of «Calendar Customs and Rites in — Europe Outside the USSR». The previous volumes were: «Winter Festivals», Moscow, Nauka, 1973; «Spring Festivals». Moscow, Nauka, 1976; «Summer and Autumn Festivals», Moscow, Nauka, 1978. This volume is based on the same information as the first three volumes. However, it differs considerably in structure and general content. In the first three volumes the information was grouped in seasonal cycles, and within each cycle the division was according to ethnic groups. The fourth volume is structured according to problems. It is based on chiefly the same European data, but in addition comparisons are made with peoples in other parts of the world.

This is a basic outline of the contents:

After the Preface which states the problems analyzed and the aim of the study there is an extensive historiographic review of various viewpoints and approaches to the study of folk customs and rites. The very concept of customs changes depending on the general state and level of development in the human area studies. On the whole enough a sufficient amount of factual information and theoretical understanding have been developed in this area. Also of an introductory character is an article on the historical development of the calendar system, on folk, civil and church calendars determining the rhythm of festivals and rites.

After this introductory material there is a study of individual components in calendar rites and customs. Each of these components is observed as they have developed from their historical sources. One of the most ancient elements of festive ritualism was, most likely, the practice of observing the «omens» and the practice of «divinations» of the weather, harvests etc. Such conjecture was probably based on the actual observation of weather phenomena.

Important components of the ritualistic calendar are magic rites related to agriculture and stock-breeding and intended to increase crop yields and herds.

Rituals of an erotic nature as based on the idea of likening the fertility of crops to that of women are closely adjoining to the agricultural rituals and superstitions. They expressed a basic concern for human reproduction.

The rituals and beliefs of a solar nature (the sun as a purifying and fruitful force) have left a tangible imprint on the ritualistic calendar of the people of Europe. Superstitions and rituals regarding fire, a purifying and apotropeic element, and rites, connected with water, also a purifying and fertile force, are very important, too. The superstitions and rituals related to vegetation, the symbol of greenery as the spring revival of nature, have a more complicated origin. Each of these components of the ritualistic calendar is discussed in separate articles. The authors, guided by the studies of earlier and current ethnologists and folklorists, strive to disclose the roots of the phenomena under discussion.

Various articles also comment on such elements of festive rituals as masks, ritual food, and gifts.

There is a special article about the performers of calendar customs and rituals. Who takes part in the festivals? Who performs the rituals? How is the social structure interpreted in the ritualistic calendar? The original and active group, undoubtedly, was the rural, and earlier, probably, the gentile and tribal community. Later this group was gradually superceded by the family — an extended patriarchal or a small nuclear family. Therefore, the calendar ritualism is intermixed with family rites (marriage, funeral, etc.). Today ritual collectivism is being revived in some areas, but with a new social meaning.

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Mit diesem Band wird die vierbändige Reihe «Volksbräuche und Riten im Jahreslauf im ausländischen Europa» abgeschlossen. (Drei vorhergehende Bände: «Winterfeste», 1973; «Frühlingsfeste», 1976; «Sommer- und Herbstfeste», 1978, Moskau, Verlag «Nauka»). Darin wird dasselbe Faktenmaterial wie in den anderen drei Bänden ausgewertet, doch unterscheidet sich dieser Band seiner Struktur und dem Inhalt nach wesentlich von ihnen. Ist in den ersten Bänden das Material entsprechend den Saisonzyklen und in jedem einzelnen Band nach Völkern und Völkergruppen zusammengefaßt, so ist es im letzten Band der Problematik nach systematisiert und durch viele vergleichende Angaben über die Völker anderer Erdteile bereichert worden.

Der Band ist folgendermaßen aufgebaut: