Russia

Riurik may be the legendary progenitor of Russia’s ruling house; Vladimir may have brought Russia into Christendom; laroslav the Wise has a good claim to be regarded as a founding father of the Russian state. He issued its first code of laws, and he created a family cult that was to have political as well as spiritual value: the cult of Boris and Gleb. The youngest sons of Vladimir, they had been murdered in 1015 by their older brother, Sviatopolk, in a bid to gain his father’s throne; they were already regarded as saints by many people for having, as they supposed, faced death with Christ-like submissiveness. laroslav now ordained the celebration of their feast day, and arranged for them to be commemorated no fewer than six times a year. ²⁶ In this way the blood of the innocents came to sanctify the men of power related to them, and the Byzantine concept of divinely sanctioned, albeit sinful, rulers set the seal on the ruling family’s authority.

With the missionary priests who had been moving into Russia came books — Bibles, psalters, compilations of civil as well as canon law — and literacy. These introduced elements of a distinct political philosophy which was to infuse Russian political life down the generations. The views of the great law-giver Justinian on the divine origin of political authority and relations between state and Church lay at its foundation: ‘God’s greatest gifts to men …’he wrote, ‘are the priesthood and state authority (imperium). The former serves the divine interest, the latter controls and cares for human interests.’ A legitimate ruler was given by ‘Christ, our God, who directs this great vessel of the present world … [as] a wise priest and pious tsar, a true leader giving the right words in judgement, guarding the truth for eternity … If anybody should upbraid … a pious prince without justification may he be punished. If a cleric he may be deposed, if a layman excommunicated.’ The ruler was appointed by God, and represented Christ on earth. He carried out priestly functions, promoted the Church’s interests, and supervised the clergy. Many such ideas, promoting symbiosis of Church and state, concludes one expert, ‘were merged into the political structure of the State of Kiev, and … became the basis for Russia’s further evolution’. ²⁷

More than that, Russian rulers sought legitimation by presenting themselves ceremonially in the manner of Byzantine emperors, as well as by virtue of their Christianity. Ilarion, whom Iaroslav had appointed metropolitan of Kiev in 1051, made the connection in a treatise on law and grace which contains a remarkable paeon of praise for Vladimir and by implication for his son Iaroslav: ‘You are similar to Constantine the Great, you are equally wise, and you love God as much, and therefore you equally deserve respect from his servants [the Church] … Let us praise … our leader and instructor, the great khagan of our land, Vladimir.’ ²⁸

Iaroslav not only ordered the compilation of Russia’s first code of law (Russkaia pravda), he issued his own coinage (presenting an image of himself enthroned in majesty) rather than continuing to use imported currency like Byzantine drachmas or oriental dirhams, and he was recognized as the peer of most other European rulers. Iaroslav had married a daughter of the King of Sweden; his son Vsevolod married into the Byzantine imperial family; his daughters married the kings of France, Hungary and Norway Magnus the Good, the future king of Denmark, was raised at his court; so was Harald Hardrada, who had been a mercenary commander in Russia and Byzantium, and was to be Harold Godwinson’s challenger for the crown of England in 1066. ²⁹

The wealth, power and influence that Russia enjoyed in the time of Iaroslav held out every prospect of an even greater future. Russia’s territory was immense, its population had burgeoned, its commerce thrived, its ruler had European stature. Almost every augury pointed to a brilliant future. And yet this first Russian Empire was to shrivel and collapse within 200 years, and laroslav bears some responsibility for it. There was a flaw in the succession system which was serious enough to undermine the state, and laroslav was aware of it.