United States

The Kennedy and Johnson administrations

The New Frontier

Kennedy, John F.: campaign buttonButton from John F. Kennedy's 1960 U.S. presidential campaign.Americana/Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

During the campaign Kennedy had stated that America was “on the edge of a New Frontier”; in his inaugural speech he spoke of “a new generation of Americans”; and during his presidency he seemed to be taking government in a new direction, away from the easygoing Eisenhower style. His administration was headed by strong, dedicated personalities. The Kennedy staff was also predominantly young. Its energy and commitment revitalized the nation, but its competence was soon called into question.

In April 1961 Kennedy authorized a plan that had been initiated under Eisenhower for a covert invasion of Cuba to overthrow the newly installed, Soviet-supported communist regime of Fidel Castro. The invasion was repulsed at the Bay of Pigs, embarrassing the administration and worsening relations between the United States and the Soviet Union. These deteriorated further at a private meeting between Kennedy and Khrushchev in June 1961 when the Soviet leader was perceived as attempting to bully his young American counterpart. Relations hit bottom in October 1962 when the Soviets secretly began to install long-range offensive missiles in Cuba, which threatened to tip the balance of nuclear power. Kennedy forced the removal of the missiles, gaining back the status he had lost at the Bay of Pigs and in his meeting with Khrushchev. Kennedy then began to work toward improving international relations, and in July 1963 he concluded a treaty with Britain and the Soviet Union banning atomic tests in the atmosphere and underwater. His program of aid to Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, raised inter-American relations to their highest level since the days of Franklin Roosevelt.

Kennedy’s domestic policies were designed to stimulate international trade, reduce unemployment, provide medical care for the aged, reduce federal income taxes, and protect the civil rights of blacks. The latter issue, which had aroused national concern in 1962 when federal troops were employed to assure the admission of a Negro at the University of Mississippi, caused further concern in 1963, when similar action was taken at the University of Alabama and mass demonstrations were held in support of desegregation. Although the Democrats controlled both houses of Congress, the administration’s proposals usually encountered strong opposition from a coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats. With Congress’s support, Kennedy was able to increase military spending substantially. This led to greater readiness but also to a significant rise in the number of long-range U.S. missiles, which prompted a similar Soviet response.

On November 22, 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, most probably by a lone gunman, though conspiracy theories abounded. Vice Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson took the oath of office immediately.

Johnson, Lyndon B.; Onassis, Jacqueline Kennedy; Johnson, Lady BirdJacqueline Kennedy and Lady Bird Johnson standing by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson as he takes the oath of office aboard Air Force One after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, November 22, 1963.Lyndon B. Johnson Library Photo

The Great Society

Johnson’s first job in office was to secure enactment of New Frontier bills that had been languishing in Congress. By far the most important of these was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which Johnson pushed through despite a filibuster by Southern senators that lasted 57 days. The act provided machinery to secure equal access to accommodations, to prevent discrimination in employment by federal contractors, and to cut off funds to segregated school districts. It also authorized the Justice Department to take a more active role in civil rights cases. Johnson went beyond the New Frontier in 1964 by declaring war on poverty. His Economic Opportunity Act provided funds for vocational training, created a Job Corps to train youths in conservation camps and urban centres, encouraged community action programs, extended loans to small businessmen and farmers, and established a domestic peace corps, the counterpart of a popular foreign program created by President Kennedy.

Civil Rights Act; Johnson, Lyndon B.U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson preparing to sign the Civil Rights Act during a ceremony at the White House on July 2, 1964.© Bettmann/Corbis