United States

Excellent syntheses of scholarship on the Reconstruction period are Rembert W. Patrick, The Reconstruction of the Nation (1967); John Hope Franklin, Reconstruction (1961); and Kenneth M. Stampp, The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877 (1965, reprinted 1975). The fullest account of blacks’ experience in the postwar years are Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (1979); and Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988). C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction (1951, reissued 1966), covers behind-the-scenes political and economic negotiations in the disputed 1876–77 election. A definitive account of the South in the post-Reconstruction era is C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (1951, reissued 1971). Important studies of postwar race relations include C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3rd rev. ed. (1974, reissued 1982); and Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race (1984). David Herbert Donald

The transformation of American society, 1865–1900

(National expansion): A comprehensive study of the American “frontiers” of the period is Harold E. Briggs, Frontiers of the Northwest: A History of the Upper Missouri Valley (1940, reissued 1950). Walter Prescott Webb, The Great Plains (1931, reprinted 1981), is a scholarly classic; see also Ray Allen Billington and Martin Ridge, Westward Expansion, 5th ed. (1982); and Rodman W. Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859–1900 (1988). Henry E. Fritz, The Movement for Indian Assimilation, 1860–1890 (1963, reprinted 1981), traces the development of this policy after the Civil War. Studies of the occupation of the Plains by the farmers are Fred A. Shannon, The Farmer’s Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860–1897 (1945, reprinted 1977); and Gilbert C. Fite, The Farmers’ Frontier, 1865–1900 (1966, reissued 1987).

(Industrial development): Edward C. Kirkland, Industry Comes of Age (1961), recounts development from the Civil War to 1897. Samuel P. Hays, The Response to Industrialism, 1885–1914 (1957), offers a perceptive appraisal of the impact of industry on American life. Discussion of the trade unions during the second half of the 19th century is Norman J. Ware, The Labor Movement in the United States, 1860–1895 (1929, reprinted 1964).

(Politics): Sean Dennis Cashman, America in the Gilded Age: From the Death of Lincoln to the Rise of Theodore Roosevelt, 2nd ed. (1988), provides an overview of the era. Leonard D. White, The Republican Era, 1869–1901 (1958, reissued 1965), presents a careful and useful analysis. H. Wayne Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (1969); and Harold U. Faulkner, Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890–1900 (1959, reissued 1963), are also valuable. Studies of populism include John D. Hicks, The Populist Revolt (1931, reprinted 1981); and Lawrence Goodwyn, Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America (1976). Harold Whitman Bradley The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Imperialism, progressivism, and America’s rise to power in the world, 1896–1920