Augustus

Appian, a Greek from Alexandria who flourished about A.D. 160, wrote a detailed and usually dependable account of the civil wars, but he breaks off with the death of Sextus Pompeius. Cassius Dio, a leading politician who lived between about A.D. 150 and 235, was the author of a history of Rome in eighty books; only twenty-six survive, but fortunately these cover the period from 68 B.C. to A.D. 54, barring some lacunae. He is a diligent and careful writer, but anachronistically applies the political system of his day to the Augustan age.

Tacitus (c. A.D. 55–c. A.D. 117) was one of the greatest Roman historians, but his masterpiece, the Annals, discusses the reign of Augustus only summarily, for he is primarily concerned with the period from the accession of Tiberius to the death of Nero. His objectivity was affected by a strong animus against the imperial system.

Velleius Paterculus (c. 19 B.C.–after A.D. 31) served under Tiberius, whom he uncritically admired. His brief history of Rome is of uneven quality, but contains some valuable character sketches.

Toward the end of his life Augustus prepared an official record of his career, the Res Gestae. He tells no lies, but sometimes fails to tell the truth.

Plutarch, a Greek who lived between c. A.D. 46 and c. A.D. 120, wrote a series of Parallel Lives in which he recounts the life stories of eminent Greek politicians or generals and compares them with those of leading Romans, with whom he finds points of resemblance. He aims to bring out the moral character of his subjects rather than to narrate political events, and does so largely through anecdotes. His biographies of Brutus and Mark Antony are fine pieces of work, and throw much light on the period. However, he probably passes on propaganda against Antony without due skepticism, and sees Antony and Cleopatra’s relationship in overly romantic terms.

Suetonius, who lived from c. A.D. 70 to c. 160, was one of Trajan’s and Hadrian’s secretaries, and had access to the imperial archives. His lives of the Caesars run from Julius Caesar to Domitian. His biographies of Augustus and Tiberius are of particular importance. His work is anecdotal and thematic, rather than narrative, but, while reflecting the interests and attitudes of his time, contains valuable information.

Cicero’s letters and his great series of speeches against Mark Antony, the Philippics, are useful (if handled with caution) for the period up to his death in 43 B.C.

Nicolaus was a Greek historian who flourished at the end of the first century B.C.; a courtier of Herod the Great, he met Augustus and won his friendship. His fragmentary life of Augustus gives a detailed account of the conspiracy against Julius Caesar and his assassination, and includes plausible stories about Augustus’ childhood (perhaps told him by his subject).

Strabo, who lived from c. 64 B.C. to A.D. 19, was a near contemporary of Augustus. He came from Pontus and traveled widely. He wrote a geographical study of the known world which contains useful economic information as well as descriptions of places.

Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23 or 24–A.D. 79) was an industrious writer, whose Natural History was an attempt to sum up all human knowledge. It contains much fascinating (sometimes nonsensical and bizarre) information about the arts, sciences, and beliefs of the day (including material about Augustus and his contemporaries).

Relevant and usually plausible anecdotes can be found in Attic Nights by the Latin author Aulus Gellius (probably born early in the second century A.D.); in Saturnalia, a fictional dialogue in which a wide range of different subjects are discussed, by Macrobius, a Roman philosopher who flourished about A.D. 400; and in Memorable Facts and Sayings by Valerius Maximus, who lived about the time of Tiberius.

Poets such as Virgil and Horace commented on political issues and events in their work and celebrated the Augustan regime. Ovid fell foul of the authorities in a major political and sexual scandal that implicated Augustus’ granddaughter, and much of his later poetry took the form of appeals against his banishment.

The literary sources are complemented by an abundance of inscriptions, including Fasti (chronological lists of consuls and triumphatores) and Calendars, which cataloged festivals and other events by the days of the year. Octavian, Antony, and other leading personalities minted coins whose imagery conveyed important political messages. Octavian and Agrippa used architecture as a means of managing public opinion and asserting their political vision.