Good Calories, Bad Calories

“considered by the general public…”: Ward 1911.

FTC report: FTC 1919 (“…the amount of meat consumed…,” 84).

“nationwide propaganda…”: Stiebeling 1939.12 The Jungle: Sinclair 2003 (“overlooked for days…,” 91). Meat sales dropped by half: Young 1981. “The effect was long-lasting…”: Root and de Rochemont 1995:211.

Trends for vegetables, fruits, etc.: USDA 2000.

“The preponderance of meat…”: Clendening 1936:7.

Food consumption from the end of World War II: Friend et al. 1979.

“medical villain cholesterol”: Blakeslee and Stamler 1966:28.

“biological rust…”: Ibid. 1966:24.

Anitschkow reported: Anitschkow and Chalatow 1913. The problem with rabbits as animal models: See, for instance, Ahrens, Hirsch, et al. 1957; Altshule 1966. “…‘cholesterol disease…”: Leary 1935.

Stamler’s chicken experiments: Blakeslee and Stamler 1966:36. Naturally occurring atherosclerosis: Altshule 1966; Lindsay and Chaikoff 1963. In baboons: McGill et al. 1960.

Exercise lowers it: Goldberg et al. 1984; Heath et al. 1983; Huttunen et al. 1979. Weight gain raises it: Anderson, Lawler, and Keys, 1957. Weight loss lowers it: Milch et al. 1957; Jolliffe et al. 1962. Fluctuate seasonally: Bleiler et al. 1963; Antonis et al. 1965. Change with body position: Tan et al. 1973. Stress will raise cholesterol: Frideman et al. 1958. Male and female hormones: Laskarzewski et al. 1983. Diuretics: Ames and Hill 1976. Sedatives: Wallace et al. 1980. Alcohol: Fraser et al. 1983. 20 to 30 percent: Kritchevsky 1958:181.

“Some works…”: Gofman and Lindgren 1950.

One out of every three women: Stone et al. 1974. Rarely die of heart attacks: Discussed in Ahrens, Hirsch, et al. 1957.

Sperry and Landé’s research: Landé and Sperry 1936.

Heart surgeons and cardiologists: See, for instance, James 1980; interview, Alan Sniderman. Debakey reported: Garrett et al. 1964.

“…why people get sick…”: Anon. 1961. The K ration: Sullivan 2004. Biology of Human Starvation: Keys, Brozek, et al. 1950.

“frank to the point of bluntness…”: Blackburn n.d. “pretty ruthless” and “Mr. Congeniality”: Interview, David Kritchevsky. 16 Keys launched his crusade: Keys, Mickelsen, et al. 1950; Keys et al. 1956. Rittenberg and Schoenheimer: Rittenberg and Schoenheimer 1937. Researchers agreed: See, for instance, Quintao et al. 1971.

“a few questions…”: Hoffman 1979. “…members of the Rotary Club…” and “a similar picture”: Keys 1994.

“fatty diet…”: Keys 1994. “Direct evidence…”: Keys 1952.

Keys’s chain of observations: Keys 1994.

1950 report from Sweden: Malmros 1950. Similar phenomena: See Keys 1975. Keys concluded: Keys 1994. Skeptics observed: See, for instance, Mann 1957.

Keys argued the same proposition: Keys 1953. “remarkable relationship…”: Keys and Anderson 1955:189.

Researchers wouldn’t buy it: Yerushalmy and Hilleboe 1957. “magic method…”: Gould 1996:272.

“…not very profitable game”: Mann 1957.

“This causality…”: Ibid. 19 “uncritically…” and “…worse than useless”: Yerushalmy and Hilleboe 1957.

Clinically meaningless: See, for instance, Howell et al. 1997.

Keys insisted that all fat: A good example is Keys et al. 1955.

Vegetable oil vs. animal fats: Kinsell et al. 1952; Groen et al. 1952.

Keys eventually accepted: Anderson, Keys, and Grande 1957.

This saturation factor: Kinsell et al. 1958; Ahrens, Insull, et al. 1957. “handicap to clear thinking”: Ahrens 1957. Fat content of beef, lard, and chicken fat: USDA n.d. 20 AHA opposed Keys: Page et al. 1957.

A new AHA report: AHA 1961. “acceptable compromise” and “some undue pussy-footing”: Anon. 1960.

Time cover story: Anon. 1961.

CHAPTER TWO:

THE INADEQUACY OF LESSER EVIDENCE

Epigraph. “Another reason…”: Friedman 1969:77.

“unmanageable proportions…”: Kaunitz 1977. “totality of data”: Stamler et al. 1972:45. “two strikingly polar attitudes…”: Blackburn 1975.

“It must still be admitted…”: Dawber 1978. “overwhelming evidence…”: Dawber 1980:141.

“highest level”: Sackett 2002.

“final scientific proof”: Anthony Gotto in Select Committee 1977d:312.

Wall Street Journal reported: Bishop 1961.

“dotting the final i”: Anon. 1964b. 24 “The absence of final…”: Quoted in Blakeslee and Keys 1966:10.

Popper’s observations: Popper 1979 (“The method of science…,” 81; infinite wrong conjectures, 15).

“each new research…”: Keys 1957. Cholesterol and heart disease among Japanese men: Marmot et al. 1975.

Navajo Indians: Page et al. 1956. Irish immigrants: Trulson et al. 1964. African nomads: Mann et al. 1964. Swiss Alpine farmers: Gsell and Mayer 1962. Benedictine and Trappist Monks: Groen et al. 1962. Explained away by Keys: Keys 1963; Keys 1975.

Mann examined the Masai: Mann et al. 1964. The Samburu had low cholesterol: Shaper 1962. “fully as high…” and “It has been estimated…”: Keys 1963.

“feed-back mechanism…”: Keys 1975.

Mann’s further research: Mann et al. 1972. Masai moved into Nairobi: Day et al. 1976. “The peculiarities of those primitive nomads…”: Keys 1975.