Good Calories, Bad Calories

“The data scarcely warrant…”: Keys 1975. Roseto study: Stout et al. 1964. “few conclusions…”: Keys 1966.

Framingham risk factors, “reasonably typical”: Dawber 1962.

Cholesterol and women, “no predictive value”: Kannel et al. 1971.

Framingham dietary research: Kannel and Gordon 1968 (“promised to be…” 2; “cautionary note…,” 15); interviews, George Mann and Tavia Gordon.

Puerto Rico study: Garcia-Palmieri et al. 1980. Honolulu: Yano et al. 1978; McGee et al. 1984. Chicago: Paul et al. 1963. Tecumseh: Nichols et al. 1976. Evans County: Stulb et al. 1965. Israel: Kahn et al. 1969.

“The human understanding…”: Bacon 1994:58.

Western Electric study: Paul et al. 1963.

Stamler’s return to Western Electric: Shekelle et al. 1981.

“The new report…”: Cohn 1981. “The message of these findings…”: Brody 1981d. “The Cholesterol Facts”: LaRosa et al. 1990. Footnote. Trulson et al. 1964; Kushi et al. 1985.

Risks of changing the fats consumed: Ahrens 1979a.

Details of Seven Countries Study: Keys 1980. $200,000 support: Anon. 1961.

Results were first published: Keys 1970. Mortality rates: Keys 1980:65.

Three lessons: Keys 1980:332–35.

Finns vs. Cretans: Keys 1970:I–168. Keys’s diet books: Keys and Keys 1959; Keys and Keys 1975.

1984 report: Keys et al. 1984.

“seems to furnish…”: Pearl 1940:15.

“A common feature…”: Bailar 1980.

Hungarian trial: Korányi 1963. British trial: Research Committee 1965.

Anti-Coronary Club trial: Christakis, Rinzler, Archer, and Kraus 1966.

“Diet Linked…”: Plumb 1962. “Special Diet…”: Schmeck 1964. “urged the government…”: Anon. 1964a.

February report: Christakis, Rinzler, Archer, et al. 1966. November report: Ibid.

Dayton’s Hospital trial: Dayton et al. 1969.

Helsinki Study: Miettinen et al. 1972.

Proponents of Keys’s hypothesis: See, for instance, Steinberg 2005.

Minnesota Coronary Survey: Frantz et al. 1989; interview, Ivan Frantz, Jr. Footnote. Frantz et al. 1975.

For background on the HRT episode, see Kolata and Petersen 2002. WHI article on CVD: Manson et al. 2003. On breast cancer: Chlebowski et al. 2003. On stroke: Wassertheil-Smoller et al. 2003. On quality of life: Hays et al. 2003. For more information, see the WHI website at NHLBI (http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/whi/). Footnote. Hulley et al. 1998.

“disastrous inadequacy…”: Sackett 2002.

1962 NHI grants: Baker et al. 1963. Ahrens’s NIH committee: Review Panel of the NHI 1969 (“The essential reason…,” 2). “would be so expensive…”: Interview, Pete Ahrens.

Task Force on Arteriosclerosis: USDHEW 1971 (“formidable” costs, I-21).

Two smaller trials: Ibid.: I-22.

CHAPTER THREE:

CREATION OF CONSENSUS

Epigraph. “In sciences…”: Bacon 1994:51.

Roots of this movement: Levenstein 1993:131–43, 178–94. See also Belasco 1989. “Villaers in Dahomey…”: Anon. 1962. Famines in the 1960s and early 1970s: See, for instance, Devereux n.d. “hundreds of millions…”: Ehrlich 1968:11.

“enormous appetite…”: Mayer 1974a:395.

“world’s most essential commodity”: Grant 1974.

Argument made by Lappé: Lappé 1971:7–9. “A shopper’s decision…”: Belasco 1989:57.

“How do you get people…”: Cross 1974. AHA recommending meat restriction: See, for instance, Rensberger 1974; Blakeslee 1973.

“the battle to feed…”: Ehrlich 1968:11. Borlaug had created: Easterbrook 1997. “more than any other…”: Quoted in Hesser 2006:132.

AHA revised its recommendations: See, for instance, Brody 1973. “including infants…”: Inter-Society Commission for Heart Disease Resources 1970.

Manufacturers’ programs to educate doctors: Levine 1986:40 (“Listen to your heart,” 61). Revised version of Stamler’s book: Blakeslee and Stamler 1966.

Polyunsaturated fats can cause cancer: Pearce and Dayton 1971; Brody 1973.

Dietary Goals: Select Committee 1977a (“the first comprehensive…,” 1).

“Premature or not…”: Brody 1981a:11.

McGovern’s Committee and its history: Levenstein 1993; interviews, Mark Hegsted, Chris Hitt, Marshall Matz, George McGovern, Nick Motern, Kenneth Schlossberg, and Alan Stone.

“…totally naïve…”: Interview, Marshall Matz. McGovern and the Pritikin Center: Interview, George McGovern. Footnote. Broad 1979b. 46 Mottern’s experience: Interview, Nick Mottern.

Mottern, Hegsted, and their perspectives: Interviews, Nick Mottern and Mark Hegsted.

Goals number one and two: Select Committee 1977a:31, 37–42, 75.

Notably the AHA: Interview, Marshall Matz.

“The question to be asked…”: Select Committee 1977a:3. “all hell…”: Interview, Mark Hegsted.

Levy’s testimony: Select Committee 1977b:8–33. “Arguments for lowering…”: Levy and Ernst 1976.

Other prominent investigators: Select Committee 1977b. AMA letter: Select Committee 1977c:670–77.

Revised edition of Dietary Goals: Select Committee 1977b (avoid overweight, xxxiii; “decrease consumption of animal fat…,” xxxix). Pressure from the livestock industry: Interviews, Nick Mottern and George McGovern.