Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

65. These other factors included industrial capitalism – the notion that people should be free to compete in business activities, because in that way the good of the community and the selfish interests of individuals coincide.

66. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 36.

67. Ibid., page 41.

68. Barry Gale, ‘Darwin and the concept of the struggle for existence: a study in the extra-scientific origins of scientific ideas’, Isis, volume 63, 1972, pages 321–344.

69. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 57.

70. Secord, Op. cit., page 431.

71. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 42. Martin Fichnan, ‘Ideological factors in the dissemination of Darwinism’, in Everett Mendelsohn (editor), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984, pages 471–485.

72. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 43.

73. Mayr, Op. cit., page 950. Ross A. Slotten, The Heretic in Darwin’s Court: The Life of Alfred Russel Wallace, New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

74. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 152.

75. Mayr, Op. cit., page 501.

76. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 162.

77. Ibid., page 187.

78. Ibid., page 67.

79. Secord, Op. cit., page 526.

80. Mayr, Op. cit., page 510.

81. Even T. H. Huxley, ‘Darwin’s bulldog’, who did so much to advance the cause of evolution overall, never made much of natural selection.

82. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Op. cit., page 24.

83. See: Peter Watson, A Terrible Beauty: The People and Ideas That Shaped the Modern Mind, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000/The Modern Mind: An Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century, New York: HarperCollins, 2001, page 371, for a summary of the evolutionary synthesis. See also: Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine (editors), The Evolutionary Synthesis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990/1998.

84. Secord, Op. cit., pages 224 and 230.

85. Mayr, Op. cit., page 654.

86. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Op. cit., page 271.

87. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 132.

88. Ibid., page 135.

89. Ibid.

90. Lewis Morgan, Ancient Society, London: Macmillan, 1877.

91. This whole debate, however, was coloured by racist thinking. For example, a new science of ‘craniometry’ emerged in which the brain sizes of different races were compared. The leading figures here were S. G. Morton in America and Paul Broca in France, who both thought they had demonstrated that the ‘lower’ races had smaller brains and that this accounted for their lower intelligence and their more primitive position on the ladder of cultural evolution.

92. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 144.

93. Ibid., page 145.

94. Ibid.

95. See Brooke, Op. cit., page 147 for the background to Dubois’ trip to the Far East.

96. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 174.

97. Ibid., page 175.

CHAPTER 32: NEW IDEAS ABOUT HUMAN ORDER: THE ORIGINS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND STATISTICS

1. D. Gerould, The Guillotine: Its Legend and Lore, New York: Blast Books, 1992, page 25.

2. Ibid., page 33.

3. See Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence, Op. cit., pages 519ff, for other reactions to the French Revolution.

4. Ibid., page 428.

5. Ken Alder, The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey That Transformed the World, London: Little Brown/Abacus, 2002/2004, page 96.

6. Ibid., pages 314–325.

7. Hawthorn, Enlightenment and Despair, Op. cit., page 67.

8. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 423.

9. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 218.

10. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 423–424.

11. Saint-Simon saw society as composed of nobles, industriels, and ‘bastard classes’. In other words, he had a healthy dislike of the bourgeoisie. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 68.

12. John Marks, Science and the Making of the Modern World, London: Heinemann, 1983, page 196.

13. Ibid., page 197.

14. Ibid., pages 198–199.