Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

15. Ibid.

16. Charlotte Roberts and Margaret Cox, Health and Disease in Britain: From Prehistory to the Present Day, Stroud, England: Sutton, 2003, pages 338–340. Roy Porter cautions that though we now equate tuberculosis with consumption, in fact the latter often included asthma, catarrh etc. Roy and Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650–1850, London: Fourth Estate, 1988, page 146.

17. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 427. Boorstin, The Seekers, Op. cit., page 222.

18. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 201.

19. Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pages 192ff, for the rupture with Saint-Simon.

20. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 429.

21. Ibid., page 430.

22. Pickering, Op. cit., pages 612–613 and 615.

23. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 431.

24. Comte had a high opinion of his accomplishments and towards the end of his life signed himself: ‘The founder of Universal Religion, Great Priest of Humanity.’

25. See ‘The vogue for Spencer’, in Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, Boston: Beacon Books, 1944/1992, pages 31ff.

26. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 438.

27. Ibid., page 446.

28. L. A. Coser, Masters in Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Sociological Context, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1971, page 281. Harold Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society: England Since 1880, London and New York: Routledge, 1989/1990, page 49.

29. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 555.

30. Hawthorn, Op. cit., pages 147ff, for the disputes ‘smouldering’ at the Verein.

31. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 556.

32. Ibid., pages 556–557.

33. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 157.

34. Anthony Giddens, introduction to Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, London and New York: Routledge, 1942 (reprint 1986), page ix.

35. Reinhard Bendix, Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait, London: Heinemann, 1960, page 70. For Weber’s political views, see Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 154f.

36. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 561–562.

37. Giddens, Op. cit., pages ixff.

38. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 563.

39. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 186.

40. David Frisby, Georg Simmel, London: Tavistock Publications, 1984, page 51.

41. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 546.

42. Ibid. See Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 122, for the links to pragmatism (see Chapter 34 below).

43. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 547.

44. Steven Lukes, Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1973, pages 206ff.

45. Ibid., page 207, for the difference between egoism, anomie and altruism.

46. Marks, Op. cit., page 208.

47. Roberts and Cox, Op. cit., page 537. ‘The germ theory of disease’, Alexander Hellemans and Bryan Bunch, The Timetables of Science, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991, page 356.

48. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 535.

49. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., volume 4, page 1140.

50. Alder, Op. cit., page 322.

51. Alan Desrosières, The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning, translated by Camille Naish, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998, page 75.

52. Ibid., pages 73–79 and 90–91.

53. Lisanne Radice, Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Fabian Socialists, London: Macmillan, 1984, page 55.

54. Not everyone was in favour of the new approach. In Britain the new register of births, marriages and deaths was criticised on all sides. Counting births irritated the Church of England, which thought that not counting baptisms showed too much respect for Nonconformists; Unitarians thought it somehow disrespectful to God to count people who were going to join their maker; and many people thought the size of their family was in any case a private matter. M. T. Cullen, The Statistical Movement in Early Victorian Britain, Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester, 1975, pages 29–30.

55. David Boyle, The Tyranny of Numbers, London: HarperCollins, 2000, pages 64–65.

56. Ibid., page 72.

57. Ibid., page 74.

58. Desrosières, Op. cit., pages 232ff.

CHAPTER 33: THE USES AND ABUSES OF NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM