Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

34. Royle, Op. cit., page 220.

35. Ibid., page 17.

36. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 155. Boorstin, The Americans, Op. cit., page 195.

37. For the general pessimism of the nineteenth century about the eighteenth century, see Cobban, Op. cit., page 215.

38. Chadwick, Op. cit., pages 158–159.

39. Ibid., page 159.

40. See Royle, Op. cit., for the organisation of secularisation in Britain and its revival in 1876. For France, see Jennifer Michael Hecht, The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism and Anthropology in France, New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.

41. Ibid., page 177.

42. When, near the end of the century, Josef Bautz, a Catholic professor of theology in Münster, argued that volcanoes are a proof of the existence of purgatory, he was roundly mocked and lampooned as the ‘professor of hell’. Chadwick. Op. cit., page 179. Most parents no longer believed in hell, says Chadwick, but they told their children they did, as a convenient form of control.

43. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 212.

44. Ibid., page 215.

45. Ibid., page 220. Like Comte, Renan thought positivism could be the basis for a new faith. Hawthorn. Op. cit., pages 114–115.

46. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 224.

47. Lester R. Kurtz, The Politics of Heresy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986, page 18.

48. Hecht, Op. cit., page 182. See also: Kurtz, Op. cit., page 18.

49. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 123.

50. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 25.

51. Ibid., page 27.

52. Moynahan, The Faith, Op. cit., page 655.

53. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 30.

54. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 655.

55. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 30.

56. Ibid., pages 30–31.

57. ‘Liberals and intransigents in France, 1848–1878’, Chapter III of Alec R. Vidler, The Modernist Movement and the Roman Church, New York: Garden Press, 1976, pages 25ff.

58. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 33.

59. Ibid.

60. Vidler, Op. cit., pages 42 and 96.

61. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 34.

62. Ibid., page 35.

63. Ibid.

64. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 659, for a vivid account of that day (including extraordinary weather).

65. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 37.

66. Ibid., page 38.

67. Vidler, Op. cit., pages 60–65 and 133f.

68. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 41.

69. Ibid., page 42.

70. ‘The Biblical Question’, Chapter X, in Vidler, Op. cit., pages 81ff. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 661, says Leo ‘warmed’ to democracy and freedom of conscience. But only by comparison with Pius.

71. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 44.

72. Ibid., page 45.

73. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 661, for the Kulturkampf in Germany that left all the sees in Prussia vacant and more than a million Catholics without access to the sacraments.

74. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 50.

75. Ibid., page 148.

76. See Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, Op. cit., chapter 18, ‘The culture of imperialism and reform’, pages 299ff. And: Erik J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, London: I. B. Tauris, 1993, pages 52–74.

77. Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Op. cit., especially chapters II, III, IV, V, VII, VIII, IX and X.

78. The Times (London), 29 April 2004. See also: Aziz Al-Azmeh, Islams and Modernities (second edition), London: Verso, 1996, especially chapter 4, pages 101–127.

79. Hourani, Op. cit., page 307, and pages 346–347.

80. The Times, 29 April 2004. Al-Azmeh, Op. cit., pages 107–117. See also: Francis Robinson, ‘Other-worldly and This-Worldly Islam and the Islamic Revival’, Cantwell Smith memorial Lecture, Royal Asiatic Society, 10 April 2003.

81. The study of Machiavelli became popular in the Islamic world, as a way to understand tyrants and despots.

82. The Times, 29 April 2004. Al-Azmeh, Op. cit., pages 41ff. Hourani, Op. cit., pages 254, 302 and 344–345. See also: Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and the Future of Islam, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.