Шум. Несовершенство человеческих суждений

321 Той же цели служит и обобщение…: Michael L. Barnett et al., “Comparative Accuracy of Diagnosis by Collective Intelligence of Multiple Physicians vs Individual Physicians”, JAMA Network Open 2 (2019): e19009, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetwork-open/fullarticle/2726709; Kimberly H. Allison et al., “Understanding Diagnostic Variability in Breast Pathology: Lessons Learned from an Expert Consensus Review Panel”, Histopathology 65 (2014): 240, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/his.12387.

322 Выясняется, что лучшие из подобных программ…: Babak Ehteshami Bejnordi et al., “Diagnostic Assessment of Deep Learning Algorithms for Detection of Lymph Node Metastases in Women with Breast Cancer”, JAMA 318 (2017): 2199, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2665774.

323 самообучающиеся алгоритмы… работают также…: Varun Gulshan et al., “Development and Validation of a Deep Learning Algorithm for Detection of Diabetic Retinopathy in Retinal Fundus Photographs”, JAMA 316 (2016): 2402, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2588763.

324 Уже сегодня искусственный интеллект по крайней мере не хуже…: Mary Beth Massat, “A Promising Future for AI in Breast Cancer Screening”, Applied Radiology 47 (2018): 22, www.ap- pliedradiology.com/articles/a-promising-future-for-ai-in-breast-cancer-screening; Alejandro Rodriguez-Ruiz et al., “Stand-Alone Artificial Intelligence for Breast Cancer Detection in Mammography: Comparison with 101 Radiologists”, Journal of the National Cancer Institute 111 (2019): 916, https://academic.oup.com/jnci/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/jnci/djy222/5307077.

325 Таблица 3…: Apgar Score, Medline Plus, https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003402.htm (last accessed February 4, 2020).

326 шкала «Апгар» практически исключает шум…: L. R. Foster et al., “The Interrater Reliability of Apgar Scores at 1 and 5 Minutes”, Journal of Investigative Medicine 54, no. 1 (2006): 293, https://jim.bmj.com/content/54/1/S308.4.

327 Оценка и подсчет количества набранных баллов по данной шкале – действия относительно…: Warren J. McIsaac et al., “Empirical Validation of Guidelines for the Management of Pharyngitis in Children and Adults”, JAMA 291 (2004): 1587, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15069046.

328 Проводилось исследование, позволившее выяснить, что BI-RADS…: Emilie A. Ooms et al., “Mammography: Interobserver Variability in Breast Density Assessment”, Breast 16 (2007): 568, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960977607000793.

329 отмечены также в патологической анатомии…: Frances P. O’Malley et al., “Interobserver Reproducibility in the Diagnosis of Flat Epithe-lial Atypia of the Breast”, Modern Pathology 19 (2006): 172, www.nature.com/articles/3800514.

330 Именно по этой причине подавление шума…: См. Ahmed Aboraya et al., “The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited”, Psychiatry (Edgmont) 3 (2006): 41, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990547. См. также краткий обзор: N. Kreitman, “The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis”, Journal of Mental Science 107 (1961): 876–886, www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-mental-science/article/reliability-of-psychiatric-diagnosis/92832FFA170F4FF41189428С6A3E6394.

331 В 1964 году проводилось исследование, в котором участвовали 91 пациент…: Aboraya et al., “Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited”, 43.

332 В попытках…: C. H. Ward et al., “The Psychiatric Nomenclature: Reasons for Diagnostic Disagreement”, Archives of General Psychiatry 7 (1962): 198.

333 Клинический специалист – сторонник концепции влияния психологических травм…: Aboraya et al., “Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited”.

334 Третья редакция DSM – III привела к существенному…: Samuel M. Lieblich, David J. Castle, Christos Pantelis, Malcolm Hopwood, Allan Hunter Young, and Ian P. Everall, “High Heterogeneity and Low Reliability in the Diagnosis of Major Depression Will Impair the Development of New Drugs”, British Journal of Psychiatry Open 1 (2015): e5–e7, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5000492/pdf/bjporcpsych 1_2_e5.pdf.