Шум. Несовершенство человеческих суждений

309 рентгенологов разных стран…: Shinsaku Sakurada et al., “Inter-Rater Agreement in the Assessment of Abnormal Chest X-Ray Findings for Tuberculosis Between Two Asian Countries”, BMC Infectious Diseases 12, article 31 (2012), https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186 /1471–2334–12–31.

310 Восемь специалистов лабораторной диагностики, рассматривавшие…: Evan R. Farmer et al., “Discordance in the Histopathologic Diagnosis of Melanoma and Melanocytic Nevi Between Expert Pathologists”, Human Pathology 27 (1996): 528, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8666360.

311 Еще один эксперимент, проведенный в онкологическом центре…: Alfred W. Kopf, M. Mintzis, and R. S. Bart, “Diagnostic Accuracy in Malignant Melanoma”, Archives of Dermatology 111 (1975): 1291, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1190800.

312 Авторы исследования пришли к выводу…: Maria Miller and A. Bernard Ackerman, “How Accurate Are Dermatologists in the Diagnosis of Melanoma? Degree of Accuracy and Implications”, Archives of Dermatology 128 (1992): 559, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/554024.

313 Сходным образом варьируют и ложноположительные диагнозы…: Craig A. Beam et al., “Variability in the Interpretation of Screening Mammograms by US Radiologists”, Archives of Internal Medicine 156 (1996): 209, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 8546556.

314 Рентгенологи порой меняют…: P. J. Robinson et al., “Variation Between Experienced Observers in the Interpretation of Accident and Emergency Radiographs”, British Journal of Radiology 72 (1999): 323, www.birpublications.org/doi/pdf/10.1259/bjr.72.856.10474490.

315 степень закупорки сосуда на коронарограмме…: Katherine M. Detre et al., “Observer Agreement in Evaluating Coronary Angiograms”, Circulation 52 (1975): 979, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1102142.

316 В тех областях, где критерии диагностики определены расплывчато…: Horton et al., “Inter- and Intra-Rater Reliability”; и Megan Banky et al., “Inter- and Intra-Rater Variability of Testing Velocity When Assessing Lower Limb Spasticity”, Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 51 (2019), www.medicaljournals.se/jrm/content/abstract/10.2340/16501977–2496.

317 Однако другой эксперимент (в котором, правда, проблемы диагностики не фигурируют)…: Esther Y. Hsiang et al., “Association of Primary Care Clinic Appointment Time with Clinician Ordering and Patient Completion of Breast and Colorectal Cancer Screening”, JAMA Network Open 51 (2019), https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2733171.

318 вот и еще одно доказательство той роли…: Hengchen Dai et al., “The Impact of Time at Work and Time Off from Work on Rule Compliance: The Case of Hand Hygiene in Health Care”, Journal of Applied Psychology 100 (2015): 846, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25365728.

319 серьезным подспорьем…: Ali S. Raja, “The HEART Score Has Substantial Interrater Reliability”, NEJM J Watch, December 5, 2018, www.jwatch.org /na47998/2018/12/05/heart-score-has-substantial-interrater-reliability (reviewing Colin A. Gershon et al., “Inter-rater Reliability of the HEART Score”, Academic Emergency Medicine 26 [2019]: 552).

320 Мы уже говорили, что обучение…: Jean-Pierre Zellweger et al., “Intra-observer and Overall Agreement in the Radiological Assessment of Tuberculosis”, International Journal of Tuberculosis & Lung Disease 10 (2006): 1123, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17044205; Ibrahim Abubakar et al., “Diagnostic Accuracy of Digital Chest Radiography for Pulmonary Tuberculosis in a UK Urban Population”, European Respiratory Journal 35 (2010): 689, https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/35/3/689.short.