A people's tragedy

49 Hobsbawm, Nations, 54; Uustalu, History, 121–4.

50 Davies, God’s Playground, 2: 6–7, 19–27, 37, 352–7.

51 Seton-Watson, Russian Empire, 411; Reshetar, Ukrainian, 6–10; Shevelov, ‘Language Question’, 74–9, 92–3.

52 Suny, Making, chs 4–6; Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan, 23–6.

53 Hobsbawm, Nations, 48–9; Slomka, From Serfdom, 171.

54 Suny, ‘Nationality’, 232; Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan, 11.

55 Suny, Making, 116ff; Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan, 21; Rorlich, Volga Tatars, ch. 8.

56 Himka, Galician, xxii, chs 2–4.

57 Guthier, ‘Popular Base’; Krawchenko, Social, 21; Shevelov, ‘Language Question’, 79; Guthier, ‘Ukrainian Cities’, 158–9; Himka, Galician, 158–75.

58 Krawchenko, Social, 264; Himka, Galician, 36–40.

59 Himka, Galician, 199–202; Trotsky, History, 898.

60 Maynard, Russian Peasant, 379.

61 Davies, God’s Playground, 84; Rogger, Jewish Policies, 106.

62 Pervaia vseobshchaia perepis’, 1–19.

63 Pares, Fall, 64; Krawchenko, Social, 26; Lehovich, White, 25.

64 Rogger, Jewish Policies, 16, 29, 30–2; Aronson, Troubled, esp. 67–81, 145–60. See also Klier and Lambroza (ed.), Pogroms.

65 The Diaries of Theodor Herzl, 395; Rogger, Russia, 203; Rogger, ‘Russian Ministers’, 42.

3 Icons and Cockroaches

1 Gorky, My Universities, 101; Troyat, Tolstoy, 789.

2 Wortman, Crisis of Russian Populism, 10; Engelstein, Keys to Happiness, ch. 5.

3 Gorky, My Universities, 107–9, 124–5, 134, 140–50.

4 Herzen, From the Other Shore, 166; Dostoevsky, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 22: 44. On this whole question see also Frierson, Peasant Icons.

5 Aksakov, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 292; Fanger, ‘Peasant in Literature’, 252–6.

6 Wortman, Crisis of Russian Populism; Glickman, ‘Alternative View’, 693–704; Pipes, Russian Revolution, 113.

7 Gorky, Letters, 54.

8 Dal’, Poslovitsy, 404–5.

9 Rittikh, Krest’ianskoe, 135.

10 Frierson, ‘Razdel’, 80, 83; ‘Peasant Family Divisions’, 309–10.

11 Brooks, When, 4; Rashin, ‘Gramotnost’ ’, 46; Eklof, Russian, 285, 287.

12 Eklof, Russian, 423.

13 Rashin, ‘Gramotnost’ ’, 37.

14 Mironov, ‘Russian Peasant Commune’, 450–1; Matossian, ‘Peasant Way of Life’, 14–16; Engelstein, Keys to Happiness, 118–19, 180.

15 Matossian, ‘Peasant Way of Life’, 4–8; Some Notes on Social Conditions, 7; Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, 33.

16 Frank, ‘Popular Justice’; Frierson, ‘Crime and Punishment’.

17 Gorky, ‘On the Russian’, 25; Frieden, Russian Physicians, 189–90.

18 Gorky, ‘On the Russian’, 17–18; Worobec, ‘Victims’, 199; Gorky, My Universities, 119.

19 Czap, ‘Peasant-Class Courts’; Frierson, ‘Rural Justice’; Burds, ‘Social Control’, 56–9, 70–81.

20 Pipes, Russian Revolution, ch. 3; Herzen, From the Other Shore, 180.

21 Pakhman, Obychnoe, 1: 7–8; Efimenko, Issledovaniia, 2: 55–62.

22 Efimenko, Issledovaniia, 2: 139–41, 153–9; Pakhman, Obychnoe, 2: 209–11.

23 Semenov, Dvadtsat’, 35–40; Efimenko, Issledovaniia, 2: 176–9.

24 Gorky, ‘On the Russian’, 12; Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, 15–16.

25 Tsytovich, Sel’skoe obshchestvo, 64.

26 Pipes, Old Regime, 157.

27 Berberova, Italics Are Mine, 12–13.

28 For a classic statement of the traditional view — that the peasants were reduced to destitution by overpopulation, inefficient farming methods and increases in indirect taxation — see Gerschenkron, ‘Agrarian Policies’. For the main ‘revisionist’ argument — that the rise in government receipts from indirect taxation reflected the growing spending power of the peasants, resulting from their greater productivity — see Simms, ‘Crisis in Russian Agriculture’. Simms has also attacked the traditional view that the 1891 famine crisis was due to soil exhaustion and backward farming methods: ‘Crop Failure’. His arguments are loosely supported by Gregory in ‘Grain Marketings’ and ‘Russian Living Standards’. On regional variations see Wheatcroft, ‘Crises and the Condition’.

29 Kushner (ed.), Selo Viriatno, 24; Semenov, Dvadtsat’, 1; Stepniak, Russian Peasantry, 55.

30 Shanin, Russia as a ‘Developing Society’, 93–102.

31 Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, 50–1; Robinson, Rural Russia, 94–7; Figes, Peasant Russia, 11–12.

32 Shanin, Awkward Class, 48.

33 Polner, Zhiznennyi put’, 38; Shanin, Russia as a ‘Developing Society’, 137, 147; Anfimov, Zemel’naia arenda, 15.

34 Mixter, ‘Peasant Collective Action’, 196–7; Manning, Crisis, 20–1.

35 Semenov, Dvadtsat’, 67.

36 Rashin, Formirovanie, 327. This was the annual number of internal passports issued to peasant migrant labourers. It probably does not account for all the five million ‘peasants’ registered as living in the cities by the 1897 census.

37 Koenker, ‘Urbanization’, 85–90; Bater, St Petersburg, 47, 308–9; Smith, Red Petrograd, 15–23.

38 A Radical Worker, 4, 6. See also the excellent discussion of the themes thrown up by Kanatchikov’s story in Zelnik, ‘Russian Bebels’.

39 Semenov, Dvadtsat’, 5–6; Tsarev, Samouchka, 17.

40 Brooks, When, 13, 55–6.

41 Johnson, Peasant and Proletarian; Bradley, Muzhik and Muscovite, 16–18, 27; von Laue, ‘Russian Labour’, 48; A Radical Worker, 21.