A people's tragedy

42 A Radical Worker, 9; Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion, 124; Bradley, Muzhik and Muscovite, ch. 6; Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 11–14; McKean, St Petersburg, 39.

43 Zelnik, Labour and Society, 241; Bater, St Petersburg, 342–4, 352–63.

44 A Radical Worker, 8, 21.

45 von Laue, ‘A Secret Memorandum’, 71; Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 145.

46 Tugan-Baranovsky, The Russian Factory, 324; McDaniel, Autocracy, 171.

47 This was the argument of Soviet historians, determined to show that the revolution had been supported by a genuine ‘proletariat’, one born in the cities and fully ‘class conscious’. Most Western historians have agreed, to a greater or lesser extent, that it was the most urbanized workers who were the most militant. See, e.g., the works of Bonnell, Koenker, Smith and McKean.

48 The classic statement of this view is Haimson, ‘Problem of Social Stability’. The argument was originally developed by the Mensheviks to explain why they had apparently lost ground in the cities to the Bolsheviks after 1905. It was claimed that, whereas the Mensheviks had retained support among skilled and unionized workers, the Bolsheviks had found a receptive audience for their more militant propaganda among the young and impulsive peasant-workers, who had flooded into the cities during the industrial boom. The implication was that the Bolsheviks were not supported by the genuine working class, but by a turbulent half-peasant mass susceptible to sporadic outbursts of violence and demagogic appeals.

49 See, e.g., Brower, ‘Labour Violence’. For some telling criticisms see the contributions at the end of this article by Johnson, Suny and Koenker.

50 A Radical Worker, 59, 63, 71.

51 Babushkin, Recollections, 51; A Radical Worker, 102.

52 A Radical Worker, 105.

53 Gorky, My Childhood, 9; A Radical Worker, 129.

54 A Radical Worker, 115.

55 Sapronov, Iz istorii rabochego dvizheniia, 35.

56 Zelnik, ‘Russian Bebels’, 443; Shapovalov, Po doroge k marksizmu, 53–4.

4 Red Ink

1 Gernet, Istoriia, 3: 169; 4: 43, 45, 139.

2 Custine, Empire, 334; Rogger, Russia, 69.

3 Gernet, Istoriia, 5: 260–1, 306; Galili, Menshevik, 195; Trotsky, History, 812; Zelnik, ‘Fate’, 21.

4 Haimson (ed.), Making, 189.

5 Berdyaev, Origin, 3–5, 48–9; Tyrkova-Williams, To, chego, 98.

6 Hamburg, Politics, 14; Geifman, Thou, 173. I am indebted to Boris Kolonitskii for the Dubois story.

7 Berlin, Russian Thinkers, 122–5.

8 Szamuely, Russian, 201–2; Raeff, Origins, 123–4.

9 Blok, ‘People’, 359; Kelly, Bakunin, 97; Berdyaev, Origin, 32–3; Szamuely, Russian, 222–3.

10 Belinskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 10: 217–18; Lotman, ‘The Poetics of Everyday Behaviour’ and ‘The Decembrists in Daily Life’.

11 Matthewson, Positive Hero, 74–7; Besancon, Intellectual, 118–19.

12 Ulam, Bolsheviks, 65; Gleason, Young, 296; Szamuely, Russian, 288; Valentinov, ‘Chernyshevskii’, 194; Valentinov, Encounters, 67–8.

13 Gleason, Young, 75; Szamuely, Russian, 321–5; Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, 271; Kelly, Bakunin, 94; Venturi, Roots, 136.

14 Koz’min, ‘Molodaia Rossiia’, 92, 103–4.

15 Gleason, Young, 341; Pravitel’stvennyi Vestnik, 11 July 1871; Steklow, Bakunin, 3: 542.

16 Malia, Herzen, 396, 407–8; Berlin, Russian Thinkers, 199.

17 Venturi, Roots, xxvi.

18 Bogucharskii, Aktivnoe, 128–9.

19 Tkachev, Izbrannye, 3: 64–85; Szamuely, Russian, 388–95.

20 Geifman, Thou, 21.

21 ‘Karl Marks’, 6–10; Resis, ‘Das Kapital’, 221–2.

22 Knizhnik, ‘Poliakov’, 76–7; Haimson (ed.), Making, 33; Resis, ‘Das Kapital’, 226 (n. 22).

23 Haimson (ed.), Making, 31–3, 458; Valentinov, Encounters, 23; Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Left, 57, 59, 61.

24 Kerensky, Crucifixion, 13; Volkogonov, Lenin, 6, 8–9, 13.

25 RTsKhIDNI, f. 2, op. 2, d. 125, l. 1; Volkogonov, Lenin, xxxvii, 6, 52; Valentinov, Maloznakomyi, 34.

26 Valentinov, Encounters, 107; NZh, 7 Nov 1917.

27 Ulam, Bolsheviks, 12, 162; Gorev, Iz partiinogo, 10; Potresov, Posmertnyi, 21.

28 Potresov, Posmertnyi, 294; Ulam, Bolsheviks, 118.

29 McNeal, Bride, 65.

30 Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, 35.

31 Lenin, PSS, 6: 9; Haimson (ed.), Making, 103, 105, 126.

32 Ulam, Bolsheviks, 178, 186; Valentinov, Encounters, 112–14; Haimson (ed.), Making, 170–1.

33 Valentinov, Encounters, 40.

5 First Blood

1 Robbins, Famine, 1–2, 11–12, 59–64, 171; Simms, ‘Crop Failure’, 237.

2 Bogdanovich, Tri Poslednikh, 149; Petrunkevich, ‘Iz zapisok’, 275.

3 Wildman, Making, 6–7; Polner, Zhiznennyi put’, 52; Frieden, Russian Physicians, ch. 6; Petrunkevich, ‘Iz zapisok’, 276.

4 Letters of Anton Chekhov, 237.

5 Tolstoi, Pis’ma L. N. Tolstogo k zhene, 208, 363; Semenov, ‘Vospominaniia o L. N. Tolstogom’, 55–6.

6 Robbins, Famine, 177–83; Frieden, Russian Physicians, ch. 6; Balzer, ‘Problem of Professions’, 189–90; Seregny, Russian Teachers, 10–11.

7 Haimson (ed.), Making, 101.

8 Simms, ‘Famine and the Radicals’, 16; Martov, Zapiski, 94, 137.

9 Haimson (ed.), Making, 68.

10 Freeze, ‘Soslovie’, 11–36; Haimson, ‘Problem of Social Identities’, 1–20.

11 Kassow, Students, 16, 22.