Good Calories, Bad Calories

“the size of the adipose deposits…”: Ibid.

“provides for a more effective…”: Ibid.

“It dawned on me…” and “like clockwork”: Pennington 1954.

Defect explains sedentary behavior: Pennington 1951a.

Pennington explained this wasn’t the case: Ibid.

Consider the kind: The example of Keys’s conscientious objectors is my own, based on Pennington 1951a.

Maintain weight at seventeen hundred calories: Keys 1949.

“What happens when…” and “The first noticeable effect…”: Pennington 1951a.

“A more rational form…”: Pennington 1953d. directs “measures primarily toward…”: Pennington 1951a.

Healthy equilibrium reestablished: Pennington 1953b (“Mobilization of increased…”); Adolph 1947; Richter 1976;353 If fat can be mobilized: Pennington 1953c (“sufficient effectiveness,” “no calorie restriction…,” “Weight would be lost…,” “The result would…”).

Energy expenditure would increase: Pennington 1953a. Du Bois’s observation: McClellan et al. 1931.

Four thousand calories a day: Evans in Newburgh 1931a; Werner 1955. Might eat three thousand calories: Pennington 1953b.

Pyruvic acid: Pennington 1955. His contemporaries dismiss him: see Yudkin 1959.

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE:

THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS, I: FAT METABOLISM

Epigraph. “Looking at obesity…”: Bruch 1957:147–48.

Astwood discovered: Anon. 1976 (“a brilliant series…”); Cassidy 1976 (“a record perhaps…”).

“The Heritage of Corpulence:” Astwood 1962.

“regulation of ingestive behaviors…”: Greenwood 1985:20.

“The vast majority…”: Ibid.

“Something has happened…”: Interview, George Cahill.

Bergmann’s lipophilia hypothesis: Bergmann and Stroebe 1927 (“It seems just as illogical…,” 593–94). I’m grateful to Richard Frank and Haidi Kuhn Segal for the translation. See also Bauer 1941; Rony 1940:159–75.

“A second operation…”: Bauer 1941.

Case reported in 1913: Rony 1940 (“Adiposity of the lower body,” 170–71).

“noted Vienna authority…”: Anon. 1930b. Bauer’s expertise: Anon. 1979. See also Bauer 1945. My primary source for Bauer’s observations on obesity is Bauer 1941. “The genes responsible…”: Bauer 1940.

“A local factor must exist…”: Bauer 1941:975.

“Like a malignant tumor…”: Quoted in ibid.:978.

“obese boys in whom…”: Ibid.:980.

Grafe’s textbook: Grafe 1933. “more or less fully accepted”: Rony 1940:173–74. “…this conception deserves…”: Wilder and Wilbur 1938:310–11.

1955 German textbook chapter: Bahner 1955:1023–26. References from German literature: Rony 1940; Rynearson and Gastineau 1949. Footnote. Interview, Theodore Van Itallie.

Bauer’s articles in English: Silver and Bauer 1931; Bauer 1940; Bauer 1941. Newburgh’s seminal paper: Newburgh 1942.

“indubitable” and “is also probably present…”: Cahill 1978.

“significantly more weight”: Lee and Schaffer 1934. For a similar experiment, see Marx et al. 1942.

“These mice will make fat…”: Mayer 1968:48. Benedict reported this: discussed in Alonso and Maren 1955, which reported confirmation of the observation in a different strain of mice.

Greenwood’s Zucker rat studies: Greenwood et al. 1981.

Hypothalamic tumor in 1840: Brobeck 1946. Nicolaidis recounted: Interview, Stylianos Nicolaidis.

Hypothalamic research in its early years: See Brobeck et al. 1943; Magoun and Fisher 1980. Hetherington and Ranson resolved controversy: Hetherington and Ranson 1939.

Brobeck’s research: Brobeck et al. 1943 (“the laws of thermodynamics…,” 836).

Ranson interpreted: Hetherington and Ranson 1942 (“the tremendously decreased…”). “related to the feeding habits”: Brobeck et al. 1943:842. Footnote. Ibid.

Ranson argued: Hetherington and Ranson 1942:615.

“concertmaster…”: Anon. 1940.

Ranson studied fluid balance and diabetes insipidus: Fisher et al. 1938:1–2.

Hypothalamic lesions cause diabetes insipidus: Ibid.

“classic type of experimental obesities”: Mayer 1953a. Teitelbaum’s experience: Teitelbaum 1955; interview, Philip Teitelbaum (“Of course they overate…”).

Lesioning the lateral hypothalamus: Anand and Brobeck 1951. Ransom’s lab had reported: Magoun and Fisher 1980.

Hetherington did research for U.S. Air Force: Interview, John Brobeck. Later editions of Ranson’s textbook: See Ranson and Clark 1964:311.

Hypothalamus as regulator of eating behavior: See, for instance, Sutin 1976; Schachter and Rodin 1974:75–83. Psychologists would “discard”: Sclafani 1981b:409.

Brooks reported: Brooks 1946.

Brooks could only do so: Brooks 1946; Brooks and Lambert 1946 (“severe and permanent…,” 700; “followed by an augmentation…,” 707).

Studying hibernators: See Mrosovsky 1976.

Dietary models of obesity: Sclafani 1987 (high-sugar diets); Oscai et al. 1984 (high-fat). See also Wade 1982. Regaining weight after fasting: Levitsky et al. 1976. “It doesn’t matter…”: Interview, Irving Faust. Transgenic animals: See, for instance, Bluher et al. 2003; Cohen et al. 2002.