Good Calories, Bad Calories

Removed ovaries from rats: For an excellent review of this work and the entire field of weight regulation and reproduction in mammals, see Wade and Schneider 1992. It was my interview with George Wade that opened my eyes to the reverse-causality hypothesis of weight gain.

“revelation”: Interview, George Wade. “The animals overeat and get fat…”: Interview, Tim Bartness.

“Hard living…retards…”: Darwin 2004:56. “Fertility is linked…,” “partitioning and utilization…,” and “reciprocal, redundant…”: Wade and Schneider 1992:235–36.

Newburgh still promoting his hypothesis: Newburgh 1948. “an excuse for avoidance…”: Rynearson and Gastineau 1949:42.

“being ruthless in self-criticism…”: Krebs 1967.

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO:

THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS, II: INSULIN

Epigraphs. “Every woman knows…”: Passmore and Swindells 1963:331. “The fact that insulin increases…”: Haist and Best 1966:1350.

Newburgh rejected “endocrine abnormality”: Newburgh, 1929 lecture, in Newburgh and Johnston 1930a. “theories that attributed obesity…”: Anon. 1955b.

Mayer pointed out: Mayer 1968:67–68.

Von Noorden suggested: Von Noorden, 1907c:61–62.

As early as 1923: Rony 1940:228.

Falta argued in pre-insulin era: Falta 1923:583–84. (“A functionally intact pancreas is necessary for fattening,” is more commonly translated as “For fattening, therefore, is necessary a functionally intact pancreas.”) Falta argued after insulin discovered: Rony 1940:289.

Clinicians in Europe using insulin: Grafe 1933:75–76. “rich in carbohydrates…”: Rony 1940:289–90. Insulin for depression and schizophrenia: See Rinkel and Himwich 1959. “all the patients gained weight”: Nasar 1998:293. “drastic increase”: Butscher 2003: 122. The Bell Jar: Plath 1996 (twenty pounds, 237; “fatter and fatter,” 192).

Insulin therapy for diabetics: Jacobson et al. 1994:444; Carlson and Campbell 1993. Rosenzweig portrayed: Rosenzweig 1994:483–84. Footnote. Ibid.

“an excellent fattening substance”: Grafe 1933:75–76. Newburgh insisted: Newburgh 1942:1082–83. See also Conn 1944.

Rony reviewed: Rony 1940:115.

Clinical investigators would state: Rynearson and Gastineau 1949:34–35. See also Jolliffe 1963:15.

McGarry on Minkowski: McGarry 1992.

“garbage can”: Interview, Bernard Jeanrenaud.

“Until recently…”: Bruch 1957:148. “amazing how little…”: Bruch 1973:6.

“the time-honored assumption…”: Bruch 1957:148. The first phase: See Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948:452–53 (“no marked quantity…” “abundant”).

Schoenheimer’s life and work: Clarke 1941. With David Rittenberg: See Schoenheimer 1961.

Their discoveries: Schoenheimer 1961 (“indistinguishable…,” 56). Wertheimer’s seminal review: Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948 (“Mobilization and deposition,” “The ‘classical theory…,’” “the lowering of the fat…,” 454). Footnote. Renold and Cahill 1965a:1–3.

“a factor acting directly…”: Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948:454.

Krebs cycle: Krebs 1981 (“the main energy source…” “All three major…,” 114).

“The high degree of metabolic…”: Bruch 1957:155–56.

Path of events to obesity: Ibid. (“the big question…,” 156; “Since it is now…,” 158).

“the fat streams…”: Magnus-Levy 1907:164. “small component…”: Benedict 1915. Nutritionists insisted: Cahill and Owen 1968; Newsholme and Start 1973: 212–13.

The 1956 papers: Dole 1956; Gordon and Cherkes 1956 (“relation to the need” “the anticipated need”); Laurell 1956.

APS Handbook: Renold and Cahill 1965. 50to 70 percent: Fritz 1961. “Adipose tissue is no longer…”: Renold et al. 1965. An excellent review of the regulation of fat metabolism and adipose tissue is Newsholme and Start 1973:195–246.

“This lipogenesis is regulated…”: Wertheimer 1965:6. Footnote. Hollifield and Parson 1965.

Second critical point: See Newsholme and Start 1973:197–98.

“a ceaseless stream…”: Brodie et al. 1965:584.

half the triglycerides not used for fuel: Reshef et al. 2003. “The storage of triglyceride fat…”: Gordon 1969:329–30.

Glycerol phosphate: For a review of the role of this molecule, the triglyceride/fatty-acid cycle, and the glucose/fatty acid cycle, see Newsholme and Start 1973:214–34. “so that they are unable…”: Gordon 1970:242.

Randle cycle: Randle et al. 1963 is Randle’s seminal paper on the glucose/fatty acid cycle.

“even in trace amounts…”: Wertheimer and Shafrir 1960:483.

“the principal regulator…” and “only the negative…”: Berson and Yalow 1965:561.

Effects of other hormones suppressed by insulin: Gordon 1970; Fritz 1961. Anything that increases insulin: Berson and Yalow 1965. The list of hormones that promote fat mobilization and accumulation is from Steinberg and Vaughn 1965.

Insulin secretion in VMH-lesioned animals: Han et al. 1965; Han 1968; Frohman et al. 1969; Han and Frohman 1970. “off the scale”: Powley 1977. Severing the vagus nerve: Hustvedt and Lovo 1972. Hypersecretion of insulin: Assimacopoulos-Jeannet and Jeanrenaud 1976. Footnote. Bray 1984.

“overwhelming”: Woods and Porte 1976:275.