Good Calories, Bad Calories

“relative unavailability…”: Gordon 1964:1295.

Amount of glycerol phosphate available: Margolis and Vaughan 1962; Renold and Cahill 1965b.

“It may be stated categorically…”: Gordon et al. 1963.

“Carbohydrate is driving insulin…”: Interview, George Cahill. 393 Fructose converted more efficiently: Havel 2005:135–36.

“exquisitely sensitive”: See, for instance, Cahill and Owen 1968:112. See also Cahill et al. 1959; Wertheimer and Shafrir 1960; Zierler and Rabinowitz 1964. Even low levels of insulin: See Bray 1976a:121.

Fat cells remain sensitive: See Berson and Yalow 1965; Neel 1982; McGarry 1992.

“greatly exaggerated” insulin response: Rabinowitz and Zierler 1962 and 1961.

Diabetogenous-obesity hypothesis: Von Noorden, 1907c:61–62. “We generally accept”: Berson and Yalow 1965:554.

“great biologic variation” and “insulin-secretory responses”: Ibid.:555.

Diabetologists and endocrinologists have speculated: Berson and Yalow 1965; McGarry 1992.

Neel’s three scenarios: Neel 1982.

Investigators measure on whole-body level: Interview, Eric Ravussin. ADA rationale for carbohydrate-rich diet: See, for instance, Franz et al. 2003. Reported by Bierman and Brunzell: Brunzell et al. 1971.

Sims’s obesity studies: Bray 1972; Sims et al. 1973; Salans et al. 1974.

“mask” the diabetes: Von Noorden 1907c:61. Reproduced in animals: Maegawa et al. 1986. Brunzell refuses: Interview, John Brunzell.

“exaggerated tendency…”: Silver and Bauer 1931.

Lipoprotein lipase: For a review of how LPL regulates use of fatty acids, see, for instance, Newsholme and Leech 1983:246–99. A more recent review can be found in Merkel et al. 2002.

Orchestration of LPL activity: Arner et al. 1981; Smith 1985; Rebuffé-Scrive 1987; Arner and Eckel 1998.

LPL is where insulin and sex hormones interact: Smith 1985; Björntorp 1985. Testosterone and LPL: Rebuffé-Scrive 1987. Progesterone: Greenwood et al. 1987. Estrogen: Rebuffé-Scrive et al. 1986. Changing fat deposition with pregnancy: Lithell 1987; Greenwood et al. 1987.

Greenwood’s “gatekeeper hypothesis” and Zucker-rat studies: Greenwood et al. 1981.

LPL gatekeeper hypothesis, researchers reported: Kern et al. 1990; Eckel 2003; Arner and Eckel 1998 (“sufficiently altered”). During exercise: Kiens et al. 1989; Hardman and Herd 1998.

The open question, “habitual dietary carbohydrate…”: Yost et al. 1998.

“farinaceous and vegetable…”: Tanner 1869b:217. “Eating carbohydrates will stimulate…”: discussion period in Gracey et al. 1991:194.

Cahill gave Banting Memorial Lecture: Cahill 1971 (“overall fuel control…” “The concentration of circulating…,” 785). “carbohydrate is driving insulin…,” “a calorie is a calorie…,” and the obese as fundamentally lazy: Interviews, George Cahill.

Kipnis fed ten “grossly obese” women: Grey and Kipnis 1971.

“necessity of restricting carbohydrates”: Schettler and Schlierf 1974:394–95.

Kipnis described his findings: Interview, David Kipnis.

Americans have become progressively heavier: Ogden et al. 2006. And more diabetic: CDC 2005. Gillman reported: Kim et al. 2006. On heavier infants and newborns, see also Schack-Nielsen et al. 2006 (Denmark); Surkan et al. 2004 (Sweden).402 “The baby is not diabetic…”: Interview, Boyd Metzger.

“If you overdo it…”: Quoted in Goldberg 2006. “Our observation of a trend…”: Kim et al. 2006.

Fatter babies more likely: See, for instance, Guo et al. 2002. “perpetuating the cycle…”: Dabelea et al. 2000.

“excessive glucose pulses”: Neel 1982.

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE:

THE FATTENING CARBOHYDRATE DISAPPEARS

Epigraphs. “We need the help…”: Butterfield 1969:8. “It is incredible…”: Atkins 1973:8.

McGovern hearing on Atkins diet: Select Committee 1973b (“The Atkins diet is nonsense…,” 17).

McGovern hearings on “Sugar in the Diet…”: Select Committee 1973a.

“We weren’t thinking…”: Interview, Kenneth Schlossberg.

McGovern’s 1976 hearings on diet and disease: Select Committee 1976 (“overconsumption may be as serious…,” 9).

“Particularly overconsumption of the wrong things…”: Ibid.:10.

“general rule of thumb”: Ibid.:19–20.

“I think what we need…”: Ibid.

“carbohydrate-deficiency syndrome…”: Astrup et al. 1994. See also Golay and Bobbioni 1997.

Proceedings of the UCSF conference: Wilson 1969. “Positive caloric balance…”: Lepkovsky 1969:95. Navy “ketogenic” diet study: Piscatelli et al. 1969 (“significant weight loss,” 185; “Uniformly and without…,” 188).

Proceedings of Obesity Association of Great Britain conference: McLean Baird and Howard 1969. “This weight gain was controlled…”: Craddock in discussion period, in McLean Baird and Howard 1989:124.

Howard became interested in carbohydrate restriction: Interview, Alan Howard. “A common feature of all…”: Howard 1969:104.

Proceedings of the Paris conference: Apfelbaum 1973. The INSERM presentation: Debry et al. 1973 (“lowering the carbohydrate”).