Good Calories, Bad Calories

“Finished bowel transit tests…”: Kellock 1985:134. Burkitt and Walker in Africa: Kellock 1985:134–35. “more white bread, sugar…”: Walker 1962. Walker’s BMJ article on bowel motility: Walker and Walker 1969.

“diets containing the natural amount…”: Burkitt et al. 1972.

“All these diseases…”: Ibid.

Himsworth on Sherlock Holmes: Galton 1976:21. “…simply an integral part…”: Walker et al. 1978.

“three million men…”: Trowell 1981:4. Footnote. Higginson 1997. Trowell’s list of African diseases: Trowell 1960:465–66.

Trowell’s African experiences: Galton 1976 (“ancient Egyptians” and “Hundreds of x-rays…,” 63). Trowell first diagnosed heart disease: Trowell 1956. “an amazing spectacle…”: Trowell 1975c.

“Western diseases” and footnote: Trowell and Burkitt 1981a: xiii. Trowell reasoned: Galton 1976:68–69. Fibrous foods harder to chew: Rodale 1974. Trowell accommodated Keys’s logic: Trowell 1975b (quotes on 221).

“not dismissed completely…”: Trowell 1975a:38. Burkitt said as much: Burkitt 1991a. (“I recognised that when it came to things like coronary heart disease, excess fat was just as important as diminished fibre. But Cleave would never accept that fat played any role in ill health at all.”) Fat and absence of fiber could be blamed: Trowell 1975a:25; Trowell 1975b:221.

“major modification”: Trowell and Burkitt 1975:343.

“Special ethnic groups…”: Trowell 1975b:221.

Trowell’s pair of articles in AJCN: Trowell 1972a; Trowell 1972b. “regenerative” agriculture: Anon. 1990. “The natural fiber…”: Rodale 1973.

“changes in gastrointestinal behavior”: Burkitt et al. 1974. “the tonic for our time”: Auerbach 1974. Reader’s Digest and the reaction: Kellock 1985:166–67.

Burkitt’s lecture: Kellock 1985:175–85 (“catastrophic drop…” and “We eat three times more…,” 180–81).

Burkitt’s disputes over fat or fiber: Kellock 1985:146–47. “furor over fiber” and “A good diet…”: Mayer and Dwyer 1977.

Forty-seven thousand male health professionals: Giovannucci et al. 1994. Eighty-nine thousand nurses: Fuchs et al. 1999. The half-dozen control trials: McKeown-Eyssen et al. 1994; MacLennan et al. 1995; Alberts et al. 2000; Schatzkin et al. 2000; Bonithon-Kopp et al. 2000; Pfeiffer et al. 2003. Fruits and vegetables: Michels et al. 2000. The WHI results: Beresford et al. 2006; Howard, Van Horn, et al. 2006; Howard, Manson, et al. 2006; Prentice et al. 2006.

“Burkitt’s hypothesis…”: Interview, Richard Doll.

NEJM editorial: Byers 2000.

“Observational studies…”: Ibid. The American Cancer Society recommendations: Byers and Doyle 2003. The NCI recommendations for preventing colorectal cancer can be found at http://www.nci.nih.gov/cancerinfo/pdq/prevention/colorectal/ patient/.

“Scientists have known…”: Boodman 1998.

Negative news in Times: Stolberg 1999; Kolata 2000b. “If preventing colon cancer…”: Brody 2000. “Keep the Fiber Bandwagon…”: Brody 1999a.

“Health Advice…”: Kolata 2000a.

“Plenty of Reasons…”: Burros 2000. “Vindication for the Maligned…”: Brody 2000. By 2004, Brody advocating fiber: Brody 2004b.

CHAPTER EIGHT:

THE SCIENCE OF THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS

Epigraph. “Forming hypotheses…”: Kleiber 1961:273.

Tokelau: The primary sources for Tokelau and the Tokelau Island Migration Study are Wessen et al. 1992 (U.S. Exploration Expedition, 37–40); Hunstman and Hooper 1996 (details of TIMS, 1–20; staples of the diet, 286–94); Wessen 2001.

TIMS a remarkably complete study: Wessen et al. 1992:18 (99 percent of all known Tokelauns were examined in round one and 82 percent by round three).

Dietary changes on Tokelau: Wessen et al. 1992:288–94 (pounds of fish, 30).

In the decades that followed: Tuia 2001; Wessen et al. 1992 (modern medical services, 267; cholesterol 306–10; weight changes, 299; Cenpac Rounder, 290–91).

Migrants to New Zealand: Wessen et al. 1992 (“immediate and extensive changes,” 291; “exceptionally high incidence…” and “migrants were at higher risk…,” 377–78). “…big increase in sucrose consumption”: Prior et al. 1978.

A number of factors: Wessen et al. 1992:383–88 (“substantially higher” and “in fact, obesity…,” 384; migrant lifestyle rigorous, 295–96; saturated fat, 292).

Difficult to explain simply: Ibid.:384–86 (“that a different set…,” 384).

Cleave’s saccharine disease: Cleave and Campbell 1966 (simplest possible explanation, 6–13).

Proposed the name Syndrome X: Reaven 1988. Over the years: Reaven 2005.

NHLBI belatedly recognized: NCEP 2002. Footnote. The first time: Sugarman 1999. The second time: Lindner 2001. A couple of thousand: LexisNexis search, over seventeen hundred articles between 1977, the beginning of the database for the Washington Post, and November 23, 1999, that included the word “cholesterol” in the headline, lead paragraph, or search terms.

“What you’re faced with…”: Interview, Scott Grundy.

“concept of the nature…”: Krebs 1971.