Good Calories, Bad Calories

Speculation voiced by Joslin: Joslin 1928:103. Man and Peters measured cholesterol: Man and Peters 1935. Albrink reported: Albrink et al. 1962. Joslin’s similar observation: Joslin et al. 1959:275. Albrink confirmed Gofman’s observation: Albrink and Meigs 1965.

“abnormal metabolic patterns”: Albrink 1963.

“purified carbohydrates”: Albrink 1965.

Arcane tests before 1960: Interviews, Gerold Grodsky and Roger Unger. “a revolution in…”: Karolinska Institute 1977.

Yalow and Berson showed: Yalow and Berson 1960. Obese had elevated insulin levels: Yalow et al. 1965.

Insulin-resistant: Berson and Yalow 1965; Berson and Yalow 1970 (“a state…,” 389).

“it is desirable…”: Berson and Yalow 1970:390.

Reaven began his investigations: Reaven et al. 1963.

Reaven’s two-part hypothesis: Interview, Gerald Reaven.

Reaven and Farquhar had reported: Farquhar et al. 1966; Reaven et al. 1967.

Working to establish validity of hypothesis: See Reaven and Olefsky 1978. First insulin-resistance test: Shen et al. 1970. DeFronzo refined the “gold standard”: DeFronzo et al. 1979.

Reaven’s Banting Lecture: Reaven 1988 (“Although this concept…”).

Three Framingham-like studies: Eschwege et al. 1985; Pyorala 1979; Welborn and Wearne 1979.

“a whole host of…”: Interview, Ralph DeFronzo. NCEP diagnostic criteria: NCEP 2002:II-27.

Reaven’s article on Syndrome X: Reaven and Chen 1996.

Silverman on Reaven’s results: Quoted in Kolata 1987.

Cognitive dissonance: Festinger 1957. Kuhn 1970:77–91 (“the awareness…,” 81; “They will devise…,” 78).

Krauss and Reaven reported: Reaven et al. 1993. “coequal partner…”: NCEP 2002:II-26.

Metabolic syndrome officially entered: See NCEP 2002 (“the primary driving force…,” II-36; “mass elevations…,” II-28); Grundy, Hansen, et al. 2004; Grundy, Brewer, et al. 2004. Grundy acknowledged: Interview, Scott Grundy.

“commonly in persons…”: NCEP 2002:II-11. Footnote. Grundy, Hansen, et al. 2004 (“very high-carbohydrate…,” 553).

CHAPTER ELEVEN:

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIABETES

Epigraph. “Does carbohydrate cause…”: Joslin 1927.

“extraordinarily high incidence”: Bradley 1971:446.

“numerous and as yet…”: Ibid.:460.

Assumption that saturated fat is the nutritional agent: USDHHS 1988:257–58 (“The frequent…,” 258). The ADA recommendations: ADA 1971.

Atherogenic American diet high in fat and salt: NCEP 2002:II-18.

The vascular complications of diabetes: Donnelly et al. 2000.

“the effects of insulin…”: Feener and Dzau 2005:874. “another possibility…”: Johnstone and Nesto 2005:978.

First reported in rabbits: Duff and McMillan 1949. In chickens: Katz et al. 1958 (“one factor…”).

In dogs: Cruz et al. 1961.

Stout published studies: Stout 1968; Stout and Vallance-Owen 1969 (“ingestion of large quantities…” and “The carbohydrate is disposed…”); Stout 1969; Stout 1970; Stout et al. 1975. Footnote. “atherogenic hormone”: DeFronzo 1997.

For a good review of the oxidative stress hypothesis, see Giugliano et al. 1996.

“conform to a tightly…”: Bunn and Higgins 1981.

For a relatively simple discussion of glycation and AGEs, see Cerami et al. 1987. My discussion of AGEs was also based on interviews with John Baynes, Michael Brownell, Frank Bunn, Anthony Cerami, Vincent Monnier, Ben Szwergold, and Helen Vlassara.

Cerami’s work on hemoglobin A1c: Koenig et al. 1976. Bunn’s work: Gabbay et al. 1977. See also Bunn et al. 1978.

AGEs and the eye: See Stitt 2001. AGEs and other diabetic complications: See Singh et al. 2001 for a review.

AGEs, collagen, and diabetes as accelerated aging: Monnier et al. 1984.

“If you remove the aorta…”: Interview, Anthony Cerami.

Oxidized LDL and heart disease: Steinberg 1997. Oxidized LDL, reactive oxygen species and glycation: Bucala et al. 1993. “markedly elevated”: Stitt et al. 1997. Footnote. “rendering the HDL…”: Hedrick et al. 2000.

“the adverse cardiovascular…”: Susic et al. 2004.

“Current evidence points…”: Peppa et al. 2003.

CHAPTER TWELVE:

SUGAR

Epigraph. “M. Delacroix…”: Brillat-Savarin 1986:104.

Reaven initiated study of glycemic index: Crapo et al. 1977 (“traditionally held tenet…”). Reaven more interested in insulin: Interview, Gerald Reaven. Jenkins and Wolever’s research: Jenkins et al. 1981. “tremendous”: Interview, Thomas Wolever.

Vitriolic debate: Interviews, Gerald Reaven (“Ice cream has…”), David Jenkins, and Thomas Wolever. See also Coulston and Reaven 1997 and the response, Wolever 1997.

Fructose and the glycemic index: Mayes 1993.

“We see no reason…”: Bantle et al. 1983. Official government position: Glinsmann et al. 1986:s65–66. “sucrose or sucrose-containing foods…”: ADA 2006.

“no conclusive evidence…”: Glinsmann et al. 1986:s15.

Surgeon General’s Report: USDHHS 1988:111. Diet and Health: NRC 1989:9.

HFCS and climbing sugar consumption: Putnam et al. 2002:8.