Good Calories, Bad Calories

Rous’s semi-starvation research: Rous 1914. McCay reported: McCay et al. 1935. Tannenbaum’s research: Reviewed in Tannenbaum 1959 (“many types of tumors…,” 530; “pathologic changes…,” 523).

Hormone-dependent factors linked to cancers: Armstrong 1977. Increase in cancer incidence with weight gain: Doll and Peto 1981:1234; World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research 1997:371–73. Obesity, cancer, and estrogen production: See, for instance, Ballard-Barbash 1999.

Warburg’s fermentation work: See Warburg 1956. Tumors starved of fuel: Tannenbaum 1959:530. Footnote. Tannenbaum 1959:524.

Early observations of glucose intolerance in cancer patients: Glicksman et al. 1956. See also Kessler 1971. Unless insulin was added: Temin 1967; Temin 1968. Adrenal and liver-cell cancers: Koontz and Iwahashi 1981. For a review of this research, see Del Giudice et al. 1998. “intensely stimulated…”: Heuson et al. 1967:359. “exquisitely sensitive…”: Osborne et al. 1976:4539.

Greater number of insulin receptors: Giorgino et al. 1991 (“selective growth…,” 452).

The Darwinian model of cancer development: Weinberg 2007: 413–24.

Ten thousand trillion and “enormous opportunity:” Weinberg 1996:252.

Insulin and IGF: For reviews of their roles in cancer development, see Giovannucci 1995; Kaaks 1996; Burroughs et al. 1999; Kaaks and Lukanova 2001; LeRoith and Roberts 2003; Baserga et al. 2003; Pollak et al. 2004. This section was also informed by interviews with Renato Baserga, Edward Giovannucci, Rudolf Kaaks, Derek LeRoith, Bruce Roberts, and Robert Weinberg.

“stumbled” upon: Interview, Renato Baserga. 216 “strong inhibition…”: Baserga 2004.

LeRoith’s experiments with IGF-deficient mice: Wu et al. 2002; Wu et al. 2003.

Cheresh has demonstrated: Brooks et al. 1997; interview, David Cheresh.

2003 meeting in London: Interview, Derek LeRoith; Novartis Foundation 2004. Studies linking hyperinsulinemia and IGF to cancer: See Kaaks and Lukanova 2001.

“People were thinking…” and “When applied simultaneously…”: Interview, Rudolf Kaaks.

“an environment that favored…”: Pollak et al. 2004.

Live 30 to 50 percent longer: See, for instance, Masoro et al. 1982. For a good review of the history of the calorie-restriction science, see Masoro 2003.

Two possibilities: Masoro 2003.

Harrison’s experiments: Harrison et al. 1984 (“Longevities were related”). Whenever these experiments are done: See, for instance, Bertrand et al. 1980.

Oxidative stress, antioxidants, and longevity: Tuma 2001; Weinert and Timiras 2003.

Characteristics of long-lived organisms: Bartke 2002; Davenport 2003.

Genetic studies of yeast: Lin et al. 2000. Worms: Lin et al. 1997. Fruit flies: Clancy et al. 2001. Mice: Holzenberger et al. 2003; Bluher et al. 2003.

“When reduced to essentials…”: Bishop 1989.

Longevity mutations regulate dauer state: Kenyon et al. 1993. “The way these worms work…”: Interview, Cynthia Kenyon.

Ruvkun reported: Kimura et al. 1997; interview, Gary Ruvkun. Long-lived fruit-fly mutants: Clancy et al. 2001. See also Kenyon 2001.

Gene knockout experiments in mice: Holzenberger et al. 2003. Kahn’s research: Bluher et al. 2003; interview, C. Ronald Kahn.

“When food becomes limiting…”: Kenyon 2001:168.

Kenyon began a series of experiments: Interview, Cynthia Kenyon.

“Could a low-carb…”: Kenyon’s slide from her conference presentation. I’m grateful to Professor Kenyon for providing the slides.

Kenyon’s restriction of carbohydrate consumption: Interview, Cynthia Kenyon.

“…attendant therapeutic implications…”: Farris et al. 2004:1432. “dream of 60 million…”: Joslin Diabetes Center 2003. Diabetologists take the same tack: See, for instance, LeRoith 2004 (“normalize” and “intensive…”).

NCEP merges both tacks: NCEP 2002 (“atherogenic diet,” II-20; “pharmaceutical modification…,” II-26).

“Weight sits like a spider…”: Willett 2001:35. “Excess weight…”: Stamler 1962:57.

PART THREE: OBESITY AND THE REGULATION OF WEIGHT

Epigraphs. “How may the medical…”: Stunkard and McClaren-Hume 1959. “To cultivate the faculty…”: Tanner 1869a:1.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN:

THE MYTHOLOGY OF OBESITY

Epigraph. “A colleague once defined…”: Cohen 1989:viii.

“To have our first idea…”: Bernard 1957:32–33.

“overweight and obesity result…”: USDHHS 2001:1.

“Most studies comparing…”: NRC 1989:583.

Percentage of obese Americans: NCHS 2005:275 (table 73).

Proportion consistent throughout society: Ogden et al. 2003. Interview, Katherine Flegal. Children not exempt: NCHS 2005:9, 279 (table 74). Footnote. Friedman 2003; interviews, Jeffrey Friedman and Katherine Flegal.

“toxic environment…”: Quoted on Brownell’s Yale University faculty information Web page (http://www.yale.edu/psychology/FacInfo/Brownell.htm).

“Cheeseburgers and french fries…”: Brownell and Horgen 2004:8. “improved prosperity…”: Nestle 2003.

“risen three-fold” and “As incomes rise…”: WHO 2004.

CDC, “attributable primarily…”: Wright et al. 2004.