Good Calories, Bad Calories

“While it is generally agreed…”: Gilmore 1977. Seventeen thousand Harvard alumni: Paffenbarger et al. 1978. Exercisers smoke less, attend more to diet: See, for instance, Chave et al. 1978.

“Diligent exercisers…”: Cohn 1980. Brody said exercise “the key”: Brody 1983a. “essential” to weight-loss program: Beck 1990. “when exercise isn’t enough…”: Stockton 1989.

Björntorp reported: Björntorp 1976. NIH conference report: Rodin 1979 (“the importance of exercise…”, 57). Pi-Sunyer reviewed the evidence: Segal and Pi-Sunyer 1989. Danish investigators: Janssen et al. 1989.

Male rats and exercise: Thomas and Miller 1958. Mayer’s rats on motorized treadmill: Mayer et al. 1954. The use of shock grids, rats retired from exercise programs: Stern and Lowney 1986.

Hamsters and gerbils: Sclafani 1981a (“permanent increases”).

“When surveying the scientific literature…”: Stern and Lowney 1986.

Ninety minutes of moderate activity: Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee 2005.

Finnish review: Fogelholm and Kukkonen-Harjula 2000.

“enemies of exercise” and “pseudo-science”: Mayer 1969.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN:

PARADOXES

Epigraph. “The literature on obesity…”: Bruch 1957:19.

“Those who consume more…”: Burros 2004a. “chronic condition…”: Stunkard 1973:32.

Hirsch’s alternative hypotheses: Hirsch 1985.

“for the vast majority…”: USDHHS 2001:1.

Fat deposition different in men and women: See Bauer 1941. “The energy conception…”: Grafe 1933:148.

“similarity may be as striking…”: Bruch 1957:150. “It is genetics…”: Friedman 2004. “Infants born to diabetic mothers…”: Select Committee 1976:137–38.

Sheldon commented: Sheldon and Stevens 1942 (“It does not take a science…,” 2; “…emaciated endomorphs,” 8).

McGovern’s committee in 1977: Select Committee 1977c (“I want to be sure…” “constantly hear anecdotes…,” 222).

Sims’s studies: Data and observations from these are scattered over numerous publications; the account given here is taken mostly from Sims 1976; Sims et al. 1973; Goldman et al. 1976; Sims et al. 1968.

“marked differences…”: Sims et al. 1973. “lost weight readily…”: Quoted in Bennett and Gurin 1982:19. “in response to both…”: Sims 1976:393.

Bouchard’s twin study: Bouchard et al. 1990. Levine reported: Levine et al. 1999.

“Genetic factors…”: Bouchard et al. 1990.

Animal husbandry: See Mayer 1968:45–46.

“Up until that moment…”: Interview, Ingrid Schmidt.

Mayer studied obese mice: Mayer 1968:49.

Tanner and Chambers: Tanner 1869b:220–21. Footnote. Ibid.:222–23.

The paradox developed: For a history of this era of nutrition research, see, for instance, Du Bois 1936:93–125; McCollum 1957:115–33. “The amount of information…”: Atwater 1888.

Rubner discovered: Rubner 1982 (“the effect of specific…,” 36). For a biography of Rubner, see Chambers 1952.

Benedict and Atwater’s experiments: Atwater and Benedict 1899.

Von Noorden on obesity: See von Noorden 1907a. “His work contains…”: Bruch 1957:25.

Von Noorden on endogenous and exogenous obesity: von Noorden 1907a: 693–700.

“The ingestion of a quantity…”: Ibid.:693.

“far the most common…”: Ibid.:697.

“an extremely popular…”: Rosenberg 1981.

Magnus-Levy had reported: Magnus-Levy 1907:261–62. Lean body mass also increases: See, for instance, James et al. 1978. Footnote. Von Noorden 1907a: 699–701.

Metabolic rate: Magnus-Levy 1907:262. “the metabolism of the individual…”: Stock and Rothwell 1982:39–40.

Benedict’s studies of basal metabolism: Benedict and Emmes 1915.

Bruch began her career: Bruch 1957:5–6.

Bruch published: Bruch 1940 (“The terms used…,” 747–48); Bruch and Touraine 1940. “Overeating was often vigorously…”: Bruch 1973:136.

“excessive eating…”: Bruch and Touraine 1940:141. “keep the child…”: Bruch 1973:136. “giving up [their]…”: Bruch 1944. Footnote. See, for instance, Brownell and Horgen 2004:8.

“perverted appetite…”: Newburgh and Johnston 1930b. “various human weaknesses…”: Newburgh and Johnston 1930a.

In 1942, Newburgh published: Newburgh 1942 (“endocrine disorder,” 1058–73; “his gluttonous habits…,” “without any effort…,” 1094–95).

By the end of Newburgh’s review: Ibid. (“it might be true…,” 1075; “a more realistic…,” 1074; “the secretions…,” “She does not resist…,” 1079).

“The work of Newburgh…” and “Newburgh answered that”: Anon. 1955a.

Fundamental flaw: Burros 2004a. Von Noorden’s proposition: Von Noorden 1907a:697. “excess calorie consumption…”: USDHHS 2001.

“If eating behavior did not…”: Bennett 1987. Big eaters: See, for instance, Waterlow 1986.

Salient question in obesity research: Bennett 1987. Footnote. Ibid.

“is energy balance achieved…”: Ibid. “An obese person…”: Rony 1940:47–48.

“On the few occasions…”: Durnin and Passmore 1967:132–33.

“Talking of a man…”: Boswell 1992:1086.

We could find two such men: See, for instance, Widdowson 1962. Stunkard’s 1959 analysis: Stunkard and McClaren-Hume 1959. “Eventually, calorie balance…”: Keys and Brozek 1953:311.

“This procedure alters…”: Friedman 2004.