Good Calories, Bad Calories

“When this animal…”: Zimmet et al. 2001.

Schmidt-Nielsen’s sand-rat experiments: Schmidt-Nielsen et al. 1964.

Monkeys in captivity: Hamilton and Brobeck 1965. Perhaps 60 percent: Bodkin et al. 1993; Jen et al. 1985. “This is on the kind…”: Interview, Barbara Hansen. Footnote. Strasser 1968.

Mammalian species that fatten regularly: Young 1976 is a good review.

“opening a can of Crisco…”: Interview, Irving Zucker.

Genetically pre-programmed: Mrosovsky 1976; Mrosovsky 1985 (“It is very hard to prevent…”). Lipectomy studies: Mauer et al. 2001.

Regulation of type and location of fat: See Young 1976.

Select out rather than in: See, for instance, Sims 1976.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN:

HUNGER

Epigraph. “Khrushchev, too, looks…”: Liebling 2004:485.

Benedict’s semi-starvation studies: Benedict et al. 1919 (fourteen to twenty-one hundred calories, 688–89).

His subjects lost the weight: Benedict et al. 1919 (“a continuous gnawing…,” 360; “almost impossible to keep warm…,” 259; reduced energy expenditure, 694–95; blood pressure, 371; pulse rate, 383; anemia, 364–65; concentration, 680; “a decrease in sexual interest…,” 640; “the whole picture…,” 698).

“One general feature…”: Benedict et al. 1919:683–85.

Keys set out to replicate: Keys, Brozek, et al. 1950 (“guinea pigs,” 64; “semi-starvation diet,” 74).253 1,570 calories, “The major food items served…”: Ibid.:74. Footnote. Ibid.

Keys’s conscientious objectors lost on average: Ibid. (body fat lost, 175–76; physiological responses, “As starvation progressed…,” 827–28; “…wise man…,” 290).

“behavior and complaints”: Ibid.:819–53, 881–904.

Five of the subjects: Ibid. (“character neurosis,” 880; “semi-starvation neurosis,” 894; “…psychosis,” 880; “weeping…,” 885; “he suffered a sudden…,” 887; “…drastic cuts…” “his neurotic manifestations…,” 890; fifth subject, 891).

Relaxation of dietary restriction: Ibid.:76–78, 842–53 (“personality deterioration…,” 891.) 255 Last weeks of experiment: Ibid. (“the prodigious level…” and “though incapable…,” 143; weight and body fat, 182).

“conventional reducing diets”: Van Gaal 1998.

“persistent clamor…”: Keys, Brozek, et al. 1950:835. Dramatic reduction in energy expenditure: See also Grande et al. 1958.

“diminishes proportionately…”: Strang and Evans 1929. Observation reported by Bray: Bray 1970. See also Bray 1969; Brown and Ohlson 1946. “There is no investigator…”: Garrow 1978:89.

Hirsch’s experiments: Leibel et al. 1995.

“all the physiological…”: Interview, Jules Hirsch.

“of all the damn…”: Ibid.

“eating fewer calories…”: USDHHS and USDA 2005:13.

Stunkard’s analysis: Stunkard and McLaren-Hume 1959 (“remarkably ineffective…” and “only 12%…”). “paradox” and “the widespread assumption…”: Anon. 1983.

“Attempts at weight reduction…”: Stunkard 1973.

The Cochrane Collaboration review: Pirozzo et al. 2002. The USDA analysis: Kennedy et al. 2001:419 (table 11). Only one study tracked participants for more than a year: Jeffery et al. 1995. The WHI report on weight: Howard, Manson, et al. 2006.

“dietary therapy remains…”: Van Gaal 1998:875–76.

“reduction of caloric intake…”: Maratos-Flier and Flier 2005:541–42.

Sixty or ninety minutes: USDHHS and USDA 2005:viii.

“while unusually strenuous…”: Wilder 1933.

“He will have to climb…”: Newburgh 1942:1085.

“Vigorous muscle exercise…”: Rony 1940:55–56. “There has been ample demonstration…”: Feinstein 1960:365. Footnote. Willett and Stampfer 1998:276.

Romance of Mayer’s background: Mayer 1955; Gershoff 2001. Interview, Albert Stunkard.

Mayer extolling virtues of exercise: Mayer and Stare 1953. “debunked…”: Tolchin 1959. “almost nil”: Mayer 1953b.

Mayer on high-school girls: Johnson et al. 1956. “The laws of thermodynamics…”: Mayer 1968:125–26.

Girls at summer camp: Bullen et al. 1964. Infants: Rose and Mayer 1968. “The striking phenomenon…” and “some individuals…”: Mayer 1975b:78.

The changing-American-diet story: See Brewster and Jacobson 1978.

Descriptions of typical meals: Mayer 1968:77–78. “frequently assumed prodigious…”: Ross 1987:35–36. “fish, poultry, or game…”: Quoted in ibid. “The 75-cent special…” and “were two or more courses…”: Schwartz 1986:91.

“most important factor…”: Mayer 1973a. “The development of obesity…”: Mayer 1968:83.

“It is a common observation…”: Rony 1940:80.

“For a long period…”: Mayer 1965.

Mayer’s observations on exercise and weight control: Mayer 1968:69–84 (“necessarily,” 69). “If exercise is decreased…”: Quoted in Galton 1961. Mayer’s rat study: Mayer et al. 1954. West Bengal study: Mayer et al. 1956. Footnote. “J. Mayer has since…”: Mayer and Thomas 1967.

As John Garrow noted: Garrow 1978:48–49. “too little”: IOM 2002:884.

“As much as Dr. Mayer…”: Glenn 1965.

“false idea…” and “facts overwhelmingly demonstrate…”: Mayer 1968:69.

Mayer primary author of Health Service report: Brody 1966.

“The successful treatment…”: Anon. 1969:54. “make weight melt…”: Mayer and Goldberg 1984. “contrary to popular belief…”: Mayer and Goldberg 1983.