Good Calories, Bad Calories

Sugar and starch consumption over the twentieth century: USDA 2000; Putnam et al. 2002. Sugar as dietary nuisance: See, for instance, Mayer 1976.

Fructose content of fruit: “Sweetener” entry, Encyclopædia Brittanica. Fructose perceived as healthy: See, for instance, Brody 1983b; Donohue 1988.

Metabolism of glucose and fructose: Shafrir 1991. “constitutes a metabolic load…”: Interview, Eleazar Shafrir. Footnote. Higgins 1916.

“In the 1980s…”: Interview, Judith Hallfrisch. Sugar raises cholesterol: Swanson et al. 1992. For unbiased reviews of metabolic effects of fructose, see Hollenbeck 1993; IOM 2002:297–303.

“pattern of fructose metabolism”: Mayes 1993. Fructose causes insulin resistance: Shafrir 1985. Reiser observed in humans: Reiser et al. 1981. Fructose-induced hypertension: See Hodges and Rebello 1983; Hwang et al. 1987.

“This is really the harmful…”: Interview, Peter Mayes.

Fructose and AGEs: Bunn and Higgins 1981; Dills 1983. Ten times more effective: McPherson et al. 1988; Suárez et al. 1989. More resistant AGEs: Suárez et al. 1995. Increases LDL oxidation: Mowri et al. 2000.

The COMA report: U.K. Department of Health 1989:43.

“The panel concluded…”: Ibid.

Dedicated an entire issue: ACJN, November 1993. “Further studies…”: Tappy and Jéquier 1993.

Institute of Medicine spent twenty pages: IOM 2002:295–324 (“insufficient evidence,” 323; no reason to pursue research, 323–24).

Half a dozen research projects: NIH CRISP database search, keywords “fructose” and “sucrose.” 203 “no conclusive evidence…”: Glinsmann et al. 1986:s65–66.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN:

DEMENTIA, CANCER, AND AGING

Epigraph. “The bottom line…”: Tanzi and Parson 2000:201.

NIH funding of Alzheimer’s research 1970s and 1980s: NIH CRISP database search, keywords “Alzheimer’s” and “dementia.” 205 Apo E4 and Alzheimer’s: Strittmatter et al. 1993. Alzheimer’s researchers blame cholesterol and saturated fat: See, for instance, Mattson 2004. Footnote. See, for instance, Marx 2001 (“link between”).

Japanese Americans vs. Japanese: Graves et al. 1996. African Americans vs. rural Africans: Hendrie et al. 2001.

Studies in large populations: Ott et al. 1999 (Rotterdam: “direct or indirect”); Leibson et al. 1997 (Minnesota); Luchsinger et al. 2001 (Manhattan); Arvanitakis et al. 2004 (Midwest); Peila et al. 2002 (Honolulu). Hyperinsulinemia and metabolic syndrome: Kuusisto et al. 1997; Vanhanen et al. 2006.

Confusion of Alzheimer’s with vascular dementia: See Kalaria 2002; Zekry et al. 2002; Korczyn 2002.

Snowdon’s nun study: Snowdon 2003.

Accumulation of vascular dementia accelerates Alzheimer’s: See, for instance, Ravona-Springer et al. 2003.

Amyloid precursor protein exists naturally: Interview, Rudolph Tanzi.

AGEs in plaques and tangles: Yan et al. 1994; Smith et al. 1994; Vitek et al. 1994. In immature plaques: Sasaki et al. 1998.

The AGEs-Alzheimer’s hypothesis: Grossman 2003; Obrenovich and Monnier 2004; Moreira et al. 2005.

Involvement of insulin: Qiu et al. 1998.

Animal experiments: Farris et al. 2003; Miller et al. 2003; Farris et al. 2004. Footnote. Kim et al. 2007.

Boosting insulin enhances memory: Craft et al. 1996. In 2003, Craft reported: Watson et al. 2003. “We’re not saying…”: Interview, Suzanne Craft.

Selkoe and Tanzi on “attendant therapeutic implications…”: Farris et al. 2004.

Higginson’s studies of cancer incidence: Reviewed in Higginson 1981; Higginson 1997. “It would seem, therefore…”: Quoted in Doll and Peto 1981:1197.

At least 75 to 80 percent: Doll and Peto 1981:1256–60.

Role of man-made chemicals minimal, diet maximal: Ibid.:1256 (table 20).

“extrinsic” and “environmental factors”: See Maugh 1979 and Doll and Peto 1981:1197. “carcinogenic soup”: Greenberg 1979. “It appears that…”: Higginson 1983. Geneva vs. Birmingham, Sweden vs. Japan: Maugh 1979. Footnote. Quoted in Maugh 1979.

Cold Spring Harbor talks: Hiatt et al. 1977:605–956.

“gross aspects…” and “ingestion of traces…”: Doll and Peto 1981:1258. Cancer in Seventh-day Adventists: Phillips 1975.

Cancer in Mormons: Lyon and Sorenson 1978; Lyon et al. 1980. “among the biggest…”: Doll and Armstrong 1981:103. For the next twenty years: See, for instance, Wynder et al. 1983; Carroll and Kritchevsky 1993; U.K. Department of Health 1998.

Failed to identify diet-related carcinogens: Interviews, W. Robert Bruce, Richard Doll and Robert Weinberg. Cancer epidemiologists made little attempt: See, for instance, World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research 1997: 509–19; U.K. Department of Health 1998:189–207.

Cleave had suggested: Cleave 1975:28–38. Yudkin on five nations: Yudkin 1986:137. Diet and Health on carbohydrates: NRC 1989:282–83.

“strikingly similar”: Giovanucci 2001.