Good Calories, Bad Calories

Bernard observed: Bernard 1957; Bernard 1974 (“harmonious ensemble” and “with such a degree of perfection…,” 48). The Cooks’ translation of Bernard is occasionally awkward, and so I have used Cannon’s translation—“All the vital mechanisms…,”—which is from Cannon 1939:38. “No more pregnant sentence…”: Quoted in Cannon 1939:38. Cannon also discussed homeostasis in Cannon 1929.

“Somehow the unstable stuff…”: Cannon 1939:23.

Homeostasis and body temperature: See, for instance, Greene 1970:23–29.

Homeostasis, hypothalamus, and hormonal functions: Wilson et al. 1998. Hormonal effects on fuel partitioning: Newsholme and Stuart 1973:329–36.

Role of insulin: Catt 1971:106–21.

Yudkin observed: Yudkin 1986:116.

“The changing dietary patterns…”: Neel 1999.

“We really must learn…”: Bernard 1957:89. “the wholeness of the organism…”: Krebs 1971.

Hypertension as “insulin-resistant state”: McFarlane et al. 2005. Relationship among hypertension, triglycerides, cholesterol, diabetes and heart disease: Rocchini 1998; Hall et al. 2003; Wilson et al. 1998.

Textbooks recommend salt reduction: See, for instance, McFarlane et al. 2005. Century-old salt hypothesis: See, for instance, Foster 1922. Salt binge increases blood pressure: Interview, Franklin Epstein. For a more comprehensive treatment of the salt/blood pressure, see Taubes 1998.

“inconclusive and contradictory”: Stamler 1967:261. “inconsistent…”: Cooper et al. 1983. “the deadly white powder”: Jacobson 1978. Systematic reviews: See, for instance, Graudal et al. 1998; He and MacGregor 2004.

Donnison on blood pressure in African natives: Donnison 1938:15–17; Donnison 1929 (“It tends to come down…”). Observations confirmed: See, for instance, Page et al. 1974.

Hypertension in Kenya and Uganda: Trowell 1981.

Donnison on the stress of civilized life: Donnison 1938:43–46. Absence of hypertension as compelling evidence: Intersalt Cooperative Research Group 1988; Taubes 1998; Colburn 1995. (To the question whether salt raises blood pressure, Jeremiah Stamler responds, “Even if you stand on your head, the answer is yes.” He then says that the most compelling evidence is that “populations that habitually take in a lot of salt have blood pressures that are higher than other populations that take in less salt.”).

Shaper’s studies: Shaper 1967; Shaper et al. 1969. Prior’s studies: Prior et al. 1964; Prior 1971. “the antecedents of cardiovascular disease…”: Page et al. 1974.

Voit on carbohydrates and blood pressure: Rony 1940:154. “With diets predominantly carbohydrate…”: Benedict et al. 1919:195. New generation: Kekwick and Pawan 1957. Rationalize popularity: See, for instance, Anon. 1973.

“remarkable sodium and water…”: Gordon 1964:1301. Bloom’s research: Bloom 1962; Bloom 1967.

“low blood pressure resulting…”: White and Selvey 1974:48. “fluid balance” and “avoid large shifts…”: Dwyer and Lu 1993:246. Insulin and sodium metabolism: See DeFronzo 1981b for a review. Insulin higher in hypertensives: Welborn et al. 1966.

“the major pathogenic defect…”: Christlieb et al. 1994.

Insulin-induced hypertension in textbooks: Randall 1973. Focus on salt hypothesis: kark and Oyama 1973. “One claim…”: Bray 1978. Low-calorie diets recommended to reduce blood pressure: DeFronzo 1981a. “carbohydrate overeating”: Kolanowski 1981.

Landsberg’s research: Landsberg 1986; Landsberg 2001; Interview, Lewis Landsberg.

CHAPTER NINE:

TRIGLYCERIDES AND THE COMPLICATIONS OF CHOLESTEROL

Epigraph. “Oversimplification has been…”: McCollum 1957:37.

Gofman’s Science article: Gofman and Lindgren 1950.

Gofman’s background: Interview, John Gofman.

“At a particular cholesterol level…”: Gofman and Lindgren 1950.

Test carried out by four groups: Cooperative Study of Lipoproteins and Atherosclerosis 1956.

Split between Gofman and other investigators: Interviews, John Gofman and Max Lauffer.

Four groups published a report: Cooperative Study of Lipoproteins and Atherosclerosis 1956 (“The lipoprotein measurements are so complex…,” 724).

“While it is true…”: Gofman et al. 1958:29–30.

Carbohydrates elevate VLDL: Gofman 1958.

“carbohydrate factor”: Ibid.

Measurement of total cholesterol: Ibid. (“false and highly…,” 281; “generalizations such as…,” 273); Gofman et al. 1958 (“Neglect of…,” 45). 157 “that the lipemic plasma…”: Ahrens et al. 1961. “The percent of fat…”: Joslin 1927.

“an exaggerated form…”: Ahrens et al. 1961.

“especially in the areas…”: Ibid. “We know of no solid…”: Ahrens et al. 1957.

Peters a “contrarian”: Interview, Margaret Albrink. Albrink’s research: Albrink 1963; Albrink 1962.

“Rockefeller Institute Report…”: Osmundsen 1961. “…brought the house down…”: Interview, Margaret Albrink.

Albrink’s results confirmed: Kuo 1967; Carlson and Bottiger 1972; Goldstein et al. 1973. JAMA published an editorial: Anon. 1967.

No consideration to alternative hypothesis: See Bishop 1961; Baker et al. 1963. Seven Countries Study: Keys 1970:I-7.