Russia

4. Hellie, The Economy and Material Culture of Russia, pp. 635—9.

5. Ibid., pp. 643, 637.

6. I have argued the point in Alexis, Tsar of All the Russias (London, 1984), p. 160.

7. Even the English-language literature on the conquest of Siberia is too considerable to list here, but I refer to the works I found useful in the references which follow.

8. See the instructions to the governor of Tsivylsk in Cheremis country near Kazan in Nolde, La Formation de l’Empire Russe, vol. 1, p. 75, quoting Dopolneniia k aktam istoricheskim (4 vols., 1846-72), vol. 2, doc. 79.

9. Tsar Vasilii Shuiskii to the governor of Pelym, 6 August 1609, in Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, p. 263.

10. R. Fisher, ed., The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev in 1648 (London, 1981), pp. 107—8. For graphic evidence of the dangers and privations Stadukhin and other explorers confronted, see also pp. 74-84.

11. A well-informed defector to Sweden in the 1660s, G. Kotoshikhin (O Rossii v tsarstvovanii Alekseia Mikhailovicha, ed. A. Pennington (Oxford, 1980), p. 106, estimated the treasury’s annual income from Siberian tribute at over 600,000 rubles.

12. K. Serbina, ed., Kniga bol’shemu chertezha (Moscow and Leningrad, 1950).

13. Petition from servicemen at Fort Verkholensk to Tsar Michael, in J. Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia’s North Asian Colony 1581-1990 (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 87-8.

14. Forsyth in A. Wood, ed., The History of Siberia: From Russian Conquest to Revolution (London, 1991), Table 5-1, p. 71. For more on the native peoples of Siberia see Christian, Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, vol. 1, pp. 54-7, Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, and T Armstrong, Russian Settlement in the North 1581-1990 (Cambridge, 1992).

15. Instruction to the governor of Iakutsk, 10 February 1644, Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, pp. 266-7. The same principle informs similar orders dating back at least twenty years.

16. [Olearius], The Voiages and Travels of the Ambassadors sent by Frederick, Duke of Holstein, to the Great Duke of Muscovy and the King of Persia (2nd edn, London, 1669), pp. 117, 136.

17. On units of ‘new formation’, see J. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia 1462-1874 (Oxford, 1985), pp. 80-1.

18. Uchenie i khitrost’ ratnago stroieniia pekhotnykh liudei [Kriegskunst der Fuss] (Moscow [State Printing Court], 1647). Over 1,000 copies of the book were printed; fewer than 200 were sold. However, its influence would have been greater than the number suggests in an age when copyists’ services were cheap.

19. P. Gordon, Dnevnik 1659-1667, ed. D. Fedosov (Moscow, 2002), p. 100.

20. Longworth, Alexis, pp. 144, 266 (n. 26), 267 (n. 61).

21. Tula: materialy dlia istorii goroda xvi—xviii stoletii (Moscow 1884), pp. 2—29.

22. Longworth, Alexis, pp. 260-61, n. 42.

23. For the Ukrainian background, see S. Lep’iavko, Kozats’ki viini kintsya xvi st. v Ukraini (Chernihiv, 1996).

24. P. Longworth, The Cossacks (London, 1969), ch. 4.

25. Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, p. 296.

26. Ibid., pp. 300-301. Recent publications by some Ukrainian historians repeat the claim that Pereiaslav was a treaty rather than a submission.

27. Longworth, Alexis, p. 96.

28. On Cossack democracy etc. see Longworth, The Cossacks, ch. 1. On Khmelnytsky and his successors, ibid., ch. 4.

29. Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, pp. 202-4.

30. W. E. D. Allen, The Ukraine: A History (Cambridge, 1940), pp. 152-58; also Frost, The Northern Wars, pp. 186—8.

31. See Longworth, Alexis, ch. 7, especially the Tsar’s letter to his chief negotiator at Andrusovo, p. 176.

32. Nolde, La Formation de l’Empire Russe, vol. 1, pp. 194—5.

33. On the advent of the Kalmyks, see Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, pp. 133-5-